diff --git a/cmd/cli/dns_intercept_darwin.go b/cmd/cli/dns_intercept_darwin.go
index b761b3a..0854efc 100644
--- a/cmd/cli/dns_intercept_darwin.go
+++ b/cmd/cli/dns_intercept_darwin.go
@@ -321,14 +321,13 @@ func (p *prog) startDNSIntercept() error {
 //	options → normalization (scrub) → queueing → translation (nat/rdr) → filtering (pass/block/anchor)
 //
 // "pfctl -sr" returns BOTH scrub-anchor (normalization) AND anchor/pass/block (filter) rules.
-// "pfctl -sn" returns nat-anchor AND rdr-anchor (translation) rules.
+// "pfctl -sn" returns rdr-anchor (translation) rules.
 // Both commands emit "No ALTQ support in kernel" warnings on stderr.
 //
 // We must reassemble in correct order: scrub → nat/rdr → filter.
 //
 // The anchor reference does not survive a reboot, but ctrld re-adds it on every start.
 func (p *prog) ensurePFAnchorReference() error {
-	natAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("nat-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	rdrAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("rdr-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	anchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 
@@ -347,11 +346,10 @@ func (p *prog) ensurePFAnchorReference() error {
 	natLines := pfFilterRuleLines(string(natOut))
 	filterLines := pfFilterRuleLines(string(filterOut))
 
-	hasNatAnchor := pfContainsRule(natLines, natAnchorRef)
 	hasRdrAnchor := pfContainsRule(natLines, rdrAnchorRef)
 	hasAnchor := pfContainsRule(filterLines, anchorRef)
 
-	if hasNatAnchor && hasRdrAnchor && hasAnchor {
+	if hasRdrAnchor && hasAnchor {
 		// Verify anchor ordering: our anchor should appear before other anchors
 		// for reliable DNS interception priority. Log a warning if out of order,
 		// but don't force a reload (the interface-specific rules in our anchor
@@ -380,15 +378,8 @@ func (p *prog) ensurePFAnchorReference() error {
 	// rules in whichever anchor appears first win. By prepending, our DNS
 	// intercept rules match port 53 traffic before a VPN app's broader
 	// "pass out quick on <iface> all" rules in their anchor.
-	if !hasNatAnchor || !hasRdrAnchor {
-		var newRefs []string
-		if !hasNatAnchor {
-			newRefs = append(newRefs, natAnchorRef)
-		}
-		if !hasRdrAnchor {
-			newRefs = append(newRefs, rdrAnchorRef)
-		}
-		natLines = append(newRefs, natLines...)
+	if !hasRdrAnchor {
+		natLines = append([]string{rdrAnchorRef}, natLines...)
 	}
 	if !hasAnchor {
 		pureFilterLines = append([]string{anchorRef}, pureFilterLines...)
@@ -590,7 +581,6 @@ func (p *prog) stopDNSIntercept() error {
 // The anchor itself is already flushed by stopDNSIntercept, so even if removal
 // fails, the empty anchor is a no-op.
 func (p *prog) removePFAnchorReference() error {
-	natAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("nat-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	rdrAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("rdr-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	anchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 
@@ -609,7 +599,7 @@ func (p *prog) removePFAnchorReference() error {
 
 	var cleanNat []string
 	for _, line := range natLines {
-		if !strings.Contains(line, rdrAnchorRef) && !strings.Contains(line, natAnchorRef) {
+		if !strings.Contains(line, rdrAnchorRef) {
 			cleanNat = append(cleanNat, line)
 		}
 	}
@@ -804,23 +794,13 @@ func (p *prog) buildPFAnchorRules(vpnExemptions []vpnDNSExemption) string {
 	// a stateful entry that handles response routing. Using "rdr pass" would skip filter
 	// evaluation, and its implicit state alone is insufficient for response delivery —
 	// proven by commit 51cf029 where responses were silently dropped.
-	rules.WriteString("# --- Translation rules (nat + rdr) ---\n")
+	rules.WriteString("# --- Translation rules (rdr) ---\n")
 
-	// NAT source to ::1 for IPv6 DNS on loopback. macOS/BSD rejects sendmsg from
-	// [::1] to a global unicast IPv6 address (EINVAL), unlike IPv4 where sendmsg from
-	// 127.0.0.1 to local private IPs works fine. The rdr rewrites the destination but
-	// preserves the original source (machine's global IPv6). Without nat, ctrld cannot
-	// reply. pf reverses both translations on the response path.
-	// Note: nat must appear before rdr (pf evaluates nat first in translation phase).
 	listenerAddr6 := fmt.Sprintf("::1 port %d", listenerPort)
-	rules.WriteString("nat on lo0 inet6 proto udp from ! ::1 to ! ::1 port 53 -> ::1\n")
-	rules.WriteString("nat on lo0 inet6 proto tcp from ! ::1 to ! ::1 port 53 -> ::1\n")
-
 	rules.WriteString("# Redirect DNS on loopback to ctrld's listener.\n")
 	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("rdr on lo0 inet proto udp from any to ! %s port 53 -> %s\n", listenerIP, listenerAddr))
 	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("rdr on lo0 inet proto tcp from any to ! %s port 53 -> %s\n", listenerIP, listenerAddr))
-	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("rdr on lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53 -> %s\n", listenerAddr6))
-	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("rdr on lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53 -> %s\n\n", listenerAddr6))
+	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("rdr on lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53 -> %s\n\n", listenerAddr6))
 
 	// --- Filtering rules ---
 	rules.WriteString("# --- Filtering rules (pass) ---\n\n")
@@ -983,7 +963,6 @@ func (p *prog) buildPFAnchorRules(vpnExemptions []vpnDNSExemption) string {
 			rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on %s route-to lo0 inet proto udp from any to ! %s port 53\n", iface, listenerIP))
 			rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on %s route-to lo0 inet proto tcp from any to ! %s port 53\n", iface, listenerIP))
 			rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on %s route-to lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53\n", iface))
-			rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on %s route-to lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53\n", iface))
 		}
 		rules.WriteString("\n")
 	}
@@ -1003,10 +982,13 @@ func (p *prog) buildPFAnchorRules(vpnExemptions []vpnDNSExemption) string {
 	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on ! lo0 route-to lo0 inet proto udp from any to ! %s port 53\n", listenerIP))
 	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on ! lo0 route-to lo0 inet proto tcp from any to ! %s port 53\n\n", listenerIP))
 
-	// Force remaining outbound IPv6 DNS through loopback for interception.
-	rules.WriteString("# Force remaining outbound IPv6 DNS through loopback for interception.\n")
+	// Force remaining outbound IPv6 UDP DNS through loopback for interception.
+	// IPv6 TCP DNS is blocked instead — raw socket response injection only handles UDP,
+	// and TCP DNS is rare (truncated responses, zone transfers). Apps fall back to IPv4 TCP.
+	rules.WriteString("# Force remaining outbound IPv6 UDP DNS through loopback for interception.\n")
 	rules.WriteString("pass out quick on ! lo0 route-to lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53\n")
-	rules.WriteString("pass out quick on ! lo0 route-to lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53\n\n")
+	rules.WriteString("# Block IPv6 TCP DNS — raw socket can't handle TCP; apps fall back to IPv4.\n")
+	rules.WriteString("block return out quick on ! lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53\n\n")
 
 	// Allow route-to'd DNS packets to pass outbound on lo0.
 	// Without this, VPN firewalls with "block drop all" (e.g., Windscribe) drop the packet
@@ -1018,8 +1000,7 @@ func (p *prog) buildPFAnchorRules(vpnExemptions []vpnDNSExemption) string {
 	rules.WriteString("# Pass route-to'd DNS outbound on lo0 — no state to avoid bypassing rdr inbound.\n")
 	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on lo0 inet proto udp from any to ! %s port 53 no state\n", listenerIP))
 	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass out quick on lo0 inet proto tcp from any to ! %s port 53 no state\n", listenerIP))
-	rules.WriteString("pass out quick on lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53 no state\n")
-	rules.WriteString("pass out quick on lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53 no state\n\n")
+	rules.WriteString("pass out quick on lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53 no state\n\n")
 
 	// Allow the redirected traffic through on loopback (inbound after rdr).
 	//
@@ -1034,7 +1015,7 @@ func (p *prog) buildPFAnchorRules(vpnExemptions []vpnDNSExemption) string {
 	// (source 127.0.0.1 → original DNS server IP, e.g., 10.255.255.3).
 	rules.WriteString("# Accept redirected DNS — reply-to lo0 forces response through loopback.\n")
 	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass in quick on lo0 reply-to lo0 inet proto { udp, tcp } from any to %s\n", listenerAddr))
-	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass in quick on lo0 reply-to lo0 inet6 proto { udp, tcp } from any to %s\n", listenerAddr6))
+	rules.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("pass in quick on lo0 reply-to lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to %s\n", listenerAddr6))
 
 	return rules.String()
 }
@@ -1043,12 +1024,11 @@ func (p *prog) buildPFAnchorRules(vpnExemptions []vpnDNSExemption) string {
 // It verifies both the anchor references in the main ruleset and the rules within
 // our anchor. Failures are logged at ERROR level to make them impossible to miss.
 func (p *prog) verifyPFState() {
-	natAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("nat-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	rdrAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("rdr-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	anchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	verified := true
 
-	// Check main ruleset for anchor references (nat-anchor + rdr-anchor in translation rules).
+	// Check main ruleset for anchor references (rdr-anchor in translation rules).
 	natOut, err := exec.Command("pfctl", "-sn").CombinedOutput()
 	if err != nil {
 		mainLog.Load().Error().Err(err).Msg("DNS intercept: VERIFICATION FAILED — could not dump NAT rules")
@@ -1059,10 +1039,6 @@ func (p *prog) verifyPFState() {
 			mainLog.Load().Error().Msg("DNS intercept: VERIFICATION FAILED — rdr-anchor reference missing from running NAT rules")
 			verified = false
 		}
-		if !strings.Contains(natStr, natAnchorRef) {
-			mainLog.Load().Error().Msg("DNS intercept: VERIFICATION FAILED — nat-anchor reference missing from running NAT rules")
-			verified = false
-		}
 	}
 
 	filterOut, err := exec.Command("pfctl", "-sr").CombinedOutput()
@@ -1229,6 +1205,7 @@ func stringSlicesEqual(a, b []string) bool {
 	return true
 }
 
+
 // pfStartStabilization enters stabilization mode, suppressing all pf restores
 // until the VPN's ruleset stops changing. This prevents a death spiral where
 // ctrld and the VPN repeatedly overwrite each other's pf rules.
@@ -1347,7 +1324,6 @@ func (p *prog) ensurePFAnchorActive() bool {
 		}
 	}
 
-	natAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("nat-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	rdrAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("rdr-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	anchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	needsRestore := false
@@ -1363,10 +1339,6 @@ func (p *prog) ensurePFAnchorActive() bool {
 		mainLog.Load().Warn().Msg("DNS intercept watchdog: rdr-anchor reference missing from running ruleset")
 		needsRestore = true
 	}
-	if !strings.Contains(natStr, natAnchorRef) {
-		mainLog.Load().Warn().Msg("DNS intercept watchdog: nat-anchor reference missing from running ruleset")
-		needsRestore = true
-	}
 
 	if !needsRestore {
 		filterOut, err := exec.Command("pfctl", "-sr").CombinedOutput()
@@ -1762,7 +1734,6 @@ func (p *prog) pfInterceptMonitor() {
 // The reload is safe for VPN interop because it reassembles from the current running
 // ruleset (pfctl -sr/-sn), preserving all existing anchors and rules.
 func (p *prog) forceReloadPFMainRuleset() {
-	natAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("nat-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	rdrAnchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("rdr-anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 	anchorRef := fmt.Sprintf("anchor \"%s\"", pfAnchorName)
 
@@ -1793,9 +1764,6 @@ func (p *prog) forceReloadPFMainRuleset() {
 	}
 
 	// Ensure our anchor references are present (they may have been wiped).
-	if !pfContainsRule(natLines, natAnchorRef) {
-		natLines = append([]string{natAnchorRef}, natLines...)
-	}
 	if !pfContainsRule(natLines, rdrAnchorRef) {
 		natLines = append([]string{rdrAnchorRef}, natLines...)
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/cli/dns_proxy.go b/cmd/cli/dns_proxy.go
index ac9d10b..948162b 100644
--- a/cmd/cli/dns_proxy.go
+++ b/cmd/cli/dns_proxy.go
@@ -211,7 +211,11 @@ func (p *prog) serveDNS(listenerNum string) error {
 		proto := proto
 		if needLocalIPv6Listener(p.cfg.Service.InterceptMode) {
 			g.Go(func() error {
-				s, errCh := runDNSServer(net.JoinHostPort("::1", strconv.Itoa(listenerConfig.Port)), proto, handler)
+				ipv6Handler := handler
+				if proto == "udp" {
+					ipv6Handler = wrapIPv6Handler(handler)
+				}
+				s, errCh := runDNSServer(net.JoinHostPort("::1", strconv.Itoa(listenerConfig.Port)), proto, ipv6Handler)
 				defer s.Shutdown()
 				select {
 				case <-p.stopCh:
diff --git a/cmd/cli/rawipv6_darwin.go b/cmd/cli/rawipv6_darwin.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0509677
--- /dev/null
+++ b/cmd/cli/rawipv6_darwin.go
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+//go:build darwin
+
+package cli
+
+import (
+	"encoding/binary"
+	"fmt"
+	"net"
+	"syscall"
+
+	"github.com/miekg/dns"
+)
+
+// wrapIPv6Handler wraps a DNS handler so that UDP responses on the [::1] listener
+// are sent via raw IPv6 sockets instead of the normal sendmsg path. This is needed
+// because macOS rejects sendmsg from [::1] to global unicast IPv6 addresses (EINVAL).
+func wrapIPv6Handler(h dns.Handler) dns.Handler {
+	return dns.HandlerFunc(func(w dns.ResponseWriter, r *dns.Msg) {
+		h.ServeDNS(&rawIPv6Writer{ResponseWriter: w}, r)
+	})
+}
+
+// rawIPv6Writer wraps a dns.ResponseWriter for the [::1] IPv6 listener on macOS.
+// When pf redirects IPv6 DNS traffic via route-to + rdr to [::1]:53, the original
+// client source address is a global unicast IPv6 (e.g., 2607:f0c8:...). macOS
+// rejects sendmsg from [::1] to any non-loopback address (EINVAL), so the normal
+// WriteMsg fails. This wrapper intercepts UDP writes and sends the response via a
+// raw IPv6 socket on lo0, bypassing the kernel's routing validation.
+//
+// TCP is not handled — IPv6 TCP DNS is blocked by pf rules and falls back to IPv4.
+type rawIPv6Writer struct {
+	dns.ResponseWriter
+}
+
+// WriteMsg packs the DNS message and sends it via raw socket.
+func (w *rawIPv6Writer) WriteMsg(m *dns.Msg) error {
+	data, err := m.Pack()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	_, err = w.Write(data)
+	return err
+}
+
+// Write sends raw DNS response bytes via a raw IPv6/UDP socket on lo0.
+// It constructs a UDP packet (header + payload) and sends it using
+// IPPROTO_RAW-like behavior via IPV6_HDRINCL-free raw UDP socket.
+//
+// pf's rdr state table will reverse-translate the addresses on the response:
+//   - src [::1]:53 → original DNS server IPv6
+//   - dst [client]:port → unchanged
+func (w *rawIPv6Writer) Write(payload []byte) (int, error) {
+	localAddr := w.ResponseWriter.LocalAddr()
+	remoteAddr := w.ResponseWriter.RemoteAddr()
+
+	srcIP, srcPort, err := parseAddrPort(localAddr)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("rawIPv6Writer: parse local addr %s: %w", localAddr, err)
+	}
+	dstIP, dstPort, err := parseAddrPort(remoteAddr)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("rawIPv6Writer: parse remote addr %s: %w", remoteAddr, err)
+	}
+
+	// Build UDP packet: 8-byte header + DNS payload.
+	udpLen := 8 + len(payload)
+	udpPacket := make([]byte, udpLen)
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(udpPacket[0:2], uint16(srcPort))
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(udpPacket[2:4], uint16(dstPort))
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(udpPacket[4:6], uint16(udpLen))
+	// Checksum placeholder — filled below.
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(udpPacket[6:8], 0)
+	copy(udpPacket[8:], payload)
+
+	// Compute UDP checksum over IPv6 pseudo-header + UDP packet.
+	// For IPv6, UDP checksum is mandatory (unlike IPv4 where it's optional).
+	csum := udp6Checksum(srcIP, dstIP, udpPacket)
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(udpPacket[6:8], csum)
+
+	// Open raw UDP socket. SOCK_RAW with IPPROTO_UDP lets us send
+	// hand-crafted UDP packets. The kernel adds the IPv6 header.
+	fd, err := syscall.Socket(syscall.AF_INET6, syscall.SOCK_RAW, syscall.IPPROTO_UDP)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("rawIPv6Writer: socket: %w", err)
+	}
+	defer syscall.Close(fd)
+
+	// Bind to lo0 interface so the packet exits on loopback where pf can
+	// reverse-translate via its rdr state table.
+	if err := bindToLoopback6(fd); err != nil {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("rawIPv6Writer: bind to lo0: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	// Send to the client's address.
+	sa := &syscall.SockaddrInet6{Port: 0} // Port is in the UDP header, not the sockaddr for raw sockets.
+	copy(sa.Addr[:], dstIP.To16())
+
+	if err := syscall.Sendto(fd, udpPacket, 0, sa); err != nil {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("rawIPv6Writer: sendto [%s]:%d: %w", dstIP, dstPort, err)
+	}
+
+	return len(payload), nil
+}
+
+// parseAddrPort extracts IP and port from a net.Addr (supports *net.UDPAddr and string parsing).
+func parseAddrPort(addr net.Addr) (net.IP, int, error) {
+	if ua, ok := addr.(*net.UDPAddr); ok {
+		return ua.IP, ua.Port, nil
+	}
+	host, portStr, err := net.SplitHostPort(addr.String())
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, 0, err
+	}
+	ip := net.ParseIP(host)
+	if ip == nil {
+		return nil, 0, fmt.Errorf("invalid IP: %s", host)
+	}
+	port, err := net.LookupPort("udp", portStr)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, 0, err
+	}
+	return ip, port, nil
+}
+
+// udp6Checksum computes the UDP checksum over the IPv6 pseudo-header and UDP packet.
+// The pseudo-header includes: src IP (16), dst IP (16), UDP length (4), next header (4).
+func udp6Checksum(src, dst net.IP, udpPacket []byte) uint16 {
+	// IPv6 pseudo-header for checksum:
+	//   Source Address (16 bytes)
+	//   Destination Address (16 bytes)
+	//   UDP Length (4 bytes, upper layer packet length)
+	//   Zero (3 bytes) + Next Header (1 byte) = 17 (UDP)
+	psh := make([]byte, 40)
+	copy(psh[0:16], src.To16())
+	copy(psh[16:32], dst.To16())
+	binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(psh[32:36], uint32(len(udpPacket)))
+	psh[39] = 17 // Next Header: UDP
+
+	// Checksum over pseudo-header + UDP packet.
+	var sum uint32
+	data := append(psh, udpPacket...)
+	for i := 0; i+1 < len(data); i += 2 {
+		sum += uint32(binary.BigEndian.Uint16(data[i : i+2]))
+	}
+	if len(data)%2 == 1 {
+		sum += uint32(data[len(data)-1]) << 8
+	}
+	for sum > 0xffff {
+		sum = (sum >> 16) + (sum & 0xffff)
+	}
+	return ^uint16(sum)
+}
+
+// bindToLoopback6 binds a raw IPv6 socket to the loopback interface (lo0)
+// and sets the source address to ::1. This ensures the packet exits on lo0
+// where pf's rdr state can reverse-translate the addresses.
+func bindToLoopback6(fd int) error {
+	// Bind source to ::1 — this is the address ctrld is listening on,
+	// and what pf's rdr state expects as the source of the response.
+	sa := &syscall.SockaddrInet6{Port: 0}
+	copy(sa.Addr[:], net.IPv6loopback.To16())
+	return syscall.Bind(fd, sa)
+}
diff --git a/cmd/cli/rawipv6_other.go b/cmd/cli/rawipv6_other.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f99895d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/cmd/cli/rawipv6_other.go
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+//go:build !darwin
+
+package cli
+
+import "github.com/miekg/dns"
+
+// wrapIPv6Handler is a no-op on non-darwin platforms. The raw IPv6 response
+// writer is only needed on macOS where pf's rdr preserves the original global
+// unicast source address, and the kernel rejects sendmsg from [::1] to it.
+func wrapIPv6Handler(h dns.Handler) dns.Handler {
+	return h
+}
diff --git a/docs/pf-dns-intercept.md b/docs/pf-dns-intercept.md
index 6c19925..213619b 100644
--- a/docs/pf-dns-intercept.md
+++ b/docs/pf-dns-intercept.md
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ options (set) → normalization (scrub) → queueing → translation (nat/rdr) 
 | Anchor Type | Section | Purpose |
 |-------------|---------|---------|
 | `scrub-anchor` | Normalization | Packet normalization |
-| `nat-anchor` | Translation | NAT rules |
+| `nat-anchor` | Translation | NAT rules (not used by ctrld) |
 | `rdr-anchor` | Translation | Redirect rules |
 | `anchor` | Filtering | Pass/block rules |
 
@@ -122,57 +122,60 @@ Three problems prevent a simple "mirror the IPv4 rules" approach:
 
 3. **sendmsg from `[::1]` to global unicast fails**: Unlike IPv4 where the kernel allows `sendmsg` from `127.0.0.1` to local private IPs (e.g., `10.x.x.x`), macOS/BSD rejects `sendmsg` from `[::1]` to a global unicast IPv6 address with `EINVAL`. Since pf's `rdr` preserves the original source IP (the machine's global IPv6 address), ctrld's reply would fail.
 
-### Solution: nat + rdr + [::1] Listener
+### Solution: Raw Socket Response + rdr + [::1] Listener
+
+**Key insight:** pf's `nat on lo0` doesn't fire for `route-to`'d packets (pf already ran the translation phase on the original outbound interface and skips it on lo0's outbound pass). `rdr` works because it fires on lo0's *inbound* side (a new direction after loopback reflection). So we can't use `nat` to rewrite the source, and any address bound to lo0 (including ULAs like `fd00:53::1`) can't send to global unicast addresses — the kernel segregates lo0's routing.
+
+Instead, we use a **raw IPv6 socket** to send UDP responses. The `[::1]` listener receives queries normally via `rdr`, but responses are sent via `SOCK_RAW` with `IPPROTO_UDP`, bypassing the kernel's routing validation. The raw socket constructs the UDP packet (header + DNS payload) with correct checksums and sends it on lo0. pf matches the response against the `rdr` state table and reverse-translates the addresses.
+
+**IPv6 TCP DNS** is blocked (`block return`) and falls back to IPv4 — TCP DNS is rare (truncated responses, zone transfers) and raw socket injection for TCP would require managing the full TCP state machine.
 
 ```
-# NAT: rewrite source to ::1 so ctrld can reply
-nat on lo0 inet6 proto udp from ! ::1 to ! ::1 port 53 -> ::1
-nat on lo0 inet6 proto tcp from ! ::1 to ! ::1 port 53 -> ::1
-
-# RDR: redirect destination to ctrld's IPv6 listener
+# RDR: redirect IPv6 UDP DNS to ctrld's listener (no nat needed)
 rdr on lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53 -> ::1 port 53
-rdr on lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53 -> ::1 port 53
 
-# Filter: route-to forces IPv6 DNS to loopback (mirrors IPv4 rules)
+# Filter: route-to forces IPv6 UDP DNS to loopback
 pass out quick on ! lo0 route-to lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53
-pass out quick on ! lo0 route-to lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53
+
+# Block IPv6 TCP DNS — raw socket can't handle TCP; apps fall back to IPv4
+block return out quick on ! lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53
 
 # Pass on lo0 without state (mirrors IPv4)
 pass out quick on lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ! ::1 port 53 no state
-pass out quick on lo0 inet6 proto tcp from any to ! ::1 port 53 no state
 
 # Accept redirected IPv6 DNS with reply-to (mirrors IPv4)
-pass in quick on lo0 reply-to lo0 inet6 proto { udp, tcp } from any to ::1 port 53
+pass in quick on lo0 reply-to lo0 inet6 proto udp from any to ::1 port 53
 ```
 
-### IPv6 Packet Flow
+### IPv6 Packet Flow (UDP)
 
 ```
 Application queries [2607:f0c8:8000:8210::1]:53 (IPv6 DNS server)
     ↓
-pf filter: "pass out route-to lo0 inet6 ... port 53" → redirects to lo0
+pf filter: "pass out route-to lo0 inet6 proto udp ... port 53" → redirects to lo0
     ↓
 pf (outbound lo0): "pass out on lo0 inet6 ... no state" → passes
     ↓
 Loopback reflects packet inbound on lo0
     ↓
-pf nat: rewrites source 2607:f0c8:...:ec6e → ::1
 pf rdr: rewrites dest [2607:f0c8:8000:8210::1]:53 → [::1]:53
+(source remains: 2607:f0c8:...:ec6e — the machine's global IPv6)
     ↓
-ctrld receives query from [::1]:port → [::1]:53
+ctrld receives query from [2607:f0c8:...:ec6e]:port → [::1]:53
     ↓
-ctrld resolves via DoH, replies to [::1]:port (kernel accepts ::1 → ::1)
+ctrld resolves via DoH upstream
     ↓
-pf reverses both translations:
-  - nat reverse: dest ::1 → 2607:f0c8:...:ec6e (original client)
-  - rdr reverse: src ::1 → 2607:f0c8:8000:8210::1 (original DNS server)
+Raw IPv6 socket sends response: [::1]:53 → [2607:f0c8:...:ec6e]:port
+(bypasses kernel routing validation — raw socket on lo0)
+    ↓
+pf reverses rdr: src [::1]:53 → [2607:f0c8:8000:8210::1]:53
     ↓
 Application receives response from [2607:f0c8:8000:8210::1]:53 ✓
 ```
 
 ### Client IP Recovery
 
-The `nat` rewrites the source to `::1`, so ctrld sees the client as `::1` (loopback). The existing `spoofLoopbackIpInClientInfo()` logic detects this and replaces it with the machine's real RFC1918 IPv4 address (e.g., `10.0.10.211`). This is the same mechanism used when queries arrive from `127.0.0.1` — no client identity is lost.
+pf's `rdr` preserves the original source (machine's global IPv6), so ctrld sees the real address. The existing `spoofLoopbackIpInClientInfo()` logic replaces loopback IPs with the machine's real RFC1918 IPv4 address for `X-Cd-Ip` reporting. For IPv6 intercepted queries, the source is already the real address — no spoofing needed.
 
 ### IPv6 Listener
 
@@ -180,12 +183,10 @@ The `[::1]` listener reuses the existing infrastructure from Windows (where it w
 - **Windows**: Always (if IPv6 is available)
 - **macOS**: Only in intercept mode
 
+On macOS, the UDP handler is wrapped with `rawIPv6Writer` which intercepts `WriteMsg`/`Write` calls and sends responses via a raw IPv6 socket on lo0 instead of the normal `sendmsg` path.
+
 If the `[::1]` listener fails to bind, it logs a warning and continues — the IPv4 listener is primary.
 
-### nat-anchor Requirement
-
-The `nat` rules in our anchor require a `nat-anchor "com.controld.ctrld"` reference in the main pf ruleset, in addition to the existing `rdr-anchor` and `anchor` references. All pf management functions (inject, remove, verify, watchdog, force-reload) handle all three anchor types.
-
 ## Rule Ordering Within the Anchor
 
 pf requires translation rules before filter rules, even within an anchor:
@@ -236,7 +237,7 @@ The trickiest part. macOS only processes anchors declared in the active pf rules
 
 1. Read `/etc/pf.conf`
 2. If our anchor reference already exists, reload as-is
-3. Otherwise, inject `nat-anchor "com.controld.ctrld"` and `rdr-anchor "com.controld.ctrld"` in the translation section and `anchor "com.controld.ctrld"` in the filter section
+3. Otherwise, inject `rdr-anchor "com.controld.ctrld"` in the translation section and `anchor "com.controld.ctrld"` in the filter section
 4. Write to a **temp file** and load with `pfctl -f <tmpfile>`
 5. **We never modify `/etc/pf.conf` on disk** — changes are runtime-only and don't survive reboot (ctrld re-injects on every start)
 
@@ -376,5 +377,6 @@ We chose `route-to + rdr` as the best balance of effectiveness and deployability
 9. **`pass out quick` exemptions work with route-to** — they fire in the same phase (filter), so `quick` + rule ordering means exempted packets never hit the route-to rule
 10. **pf cannot cross-AF redirect** — `rdr on lo0 inet6 ... -> 127.0.0.1` is invalid. IPv6 DNS must be handled by an `[::1]` listener.
 11. **`block return` doesn't work for IPv6 DNS** — BSD doesn't deliver ICMPv6 unreachable to unconnected UDP sockets (`sendto`). Apps timeout waiting for a response that never comes.
-12. **sendmsg from `::1` to global unicast fails on macOS** — unlike IPv4 where `127.0.0.1` can send to any local address, `::1` cannot send to the machine's own global IPv6 address. `nat` on lo0 is required to rewrite the source.
-13. **`nat-anchor` is separate from `rdr-anchor`** — pf requires both in the main ruleset for nat and rdr rules in an anchor to be evaluated. `rdr-anchor` alone does not cover nat rules.
+12. **sendmsg from `::1` to global unicast fails on macOS** — unlike IPv4 where `127.0.0.1` can send to any local address, `::1` cannot send to the machine's own global IPv6 address. Solved with raw socket response injection (SOCK_RAW + IPPROTO_UDP on lo0).
+13. **`nat on lo0` doesn't fire for `route-to`'d packets** — pf runs translation on the original outbound interface (en0), then skips it on lo0's outbound pass. `rdr` works because lo0 inbound is a genuinely new direction. Any lo0 address (including ULAs) can't route to global unicast — the kernel segregates lo0's routing table.
+14. **Raw IPv6 sockets bypass routing validation** — `SOCK_RAW` with `IPPROTO_UDP` can send from `::1` to global unicast on lo0, unlike normal `SOCK_DGRAM` sockets. The kernel doesn't apply the same routing checks for raw sockets.