gstack/browse/src/browser-manager.ts

/**
 * Browser lifecycle manager
 *
 * Chromium crash handling:
 *   browser.on('disconnected') → log error → process.exit(1)
 *   CLI detects dead server → auto-restarts on next command
 *   We do NOT try to self-heal — don't hide failure.
 *
 * Dialog handling:
 *   page.on('dialog') → auto-accept by default → store in dialog buffer
 *   Prevents browser lockup from alert/confirm/prompt
 *
 * Context recreation (useragent):
 *   recreateContext() saves cookies/storage/URLs, creates new context,
 *   restores state. Falls back to clean slate on any failure.
 */

import type { ChildProcess } from 'node:child_process';
import { chromium, type Browser, type BrowserContext, type BrowserContextOptions, type Page, type Locator, type Cookie } from 'playwright';
import { writeSecureFile, mkdirSecure } from './file-permissions';
import { addConsoleEntry, addNetworkEntry, addDialogEntry, networkBuffer, type DialogEntry } from './buffers';
import { emitActivity } from './activity';
import { validateNavigationUrl, blockedNavigationReason } from './url-validation';
import { TabSession, type RefEntry } from './tab-session';
import { resolveChromiumProfile, cleanSingletonLocks, resolveConfig } from './config';
import { ensureProjectProfile } from './chromium-profiles';
import { launchWithXProtectHeal } from './xprotect-heal';
import { DIRECT_PROXY_ARG, forcesDirect } from './proxy-config';
import { readPidStartTime, shouldSpawnXvfb, spawnFreeXvfb, xvfbInstallHint, type XvfbHandle } from './xvfb';
import { withCdpSession } from './cdp-bridge';
import { resultLine } from '../../lib/result-codes';
import { sanitizeEcho } from '../../lib/sanitize-echo';
import type { MemorySnapshot, MemoryStructureStats, MemoryTabSnapshot, MemoryProcess } from './memory-snapshot';

/**
 * Headless GPU flags (#2709): on macOS 26 / Apple Silicon the headless-shell
 * GPU process can peg ~800% CPU indefinitely after real page work, and
 * --disable-gpu alone is not enough — the software-compositing GPU process
 * still spawns and still spins. The reporter validated this exact flag set
 * drops it to 0.0% with screenshots still working. darwin-gated: on Linux CI
 * and Windows the GPU process behaves, and the flags are a mild automation
 * tell. GSTACK_DISABLE_GPU=off opts out. Pure function (platform + env
 * injected) so the darwin behavior is unit-testable on any host. Deliberately
 * NOT in buildGStackLaunchArgs: that feeds the headed/GBrowser paths too,
 * where GPU-off is user-visibly wrong.
 */
export function headlessGpuArgs(platform: string, env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv): string[] {
  if (platform !== 'darwin') return [];
  if ((env.GSTACK_DISABLE_GPU || '').toLowerCase() === 'off') return [];
  return [
    '--disable-gpu',
    '--disable-software-rasterizer',
    '--disable-gpu-compositing',
    '--disable-gpu-watchdog',
  ];
}

/**
 * Detect whether GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH points at a custom Chromium build that
 * already bakes the gstack extension in as a component extension (e.g.,
 * GStack Browser.app / GBrowser). Passing --load-extension against such a
 * binary triggers a ServiceWorkerState::SetWorkerId DCHECK because two
 * copies of the same service worker try to register.
 *
 * Resolution:
 *   1. GSTACK_CHROMIUM_KIND === 'custom-extension-baked' (preferred, explicit)
 *   2. GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH path substring contains 'GBrowser' or 'gbrowser'
 *      (fallback for callers that only set the path)
 */
export function isCustomChromium(): boolean {
  if (process.env.GSTACK_CHROMIUM_KIND === 'custom-extension-baked') return true;
  const p = process.env.GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH || '';
  return p.includes('GBrowser') || p.includes('gbrowser');
}

/**
 * Decide whether Playwright should request Chromium's sandbox.
 *
 * Returns false on Windows (Bun→Node→Chromium chain breaks the sandbox,
 * GitHub #276) and on Linux under root / CI / container (sandbox needs
 * unprivileged user namespaces, which are missing for root and typically
 * disabled in containers).
 *
 * When false, Playwright auto-adds --no-sandbox to the launch args — the
 * desired behavior in those environments. When true, Playwright does NOT
 * add --no-sandbox, which keeps Chromium's "unsupported command-line flag"
 * yellow infobar from appearing on every headed launch.
 *
 * The headless launch path also pushes an explicit '--no-sandbox' into args
 * when CI/CONTAINER/root is set; that push is now defensively redundant
 * (Playwright will add it anyway when this returns false) and harmless.
 */
export function shouldEnableChromiumSandbox(): boolean {
  if (process.platform === 'win32') return false;
  // Explicit user override for Ubuntu/AppArmor and similar environments where
  // unprivileged Chromium sandboxing is blocked even for normal users (the
  // sandbox needs unprivileged user namespaces that the host policy denies,
  // so /qa hangs without --no-sandbox). Setting GSTACK_CHROMIUM_NO_SANDBOX=1
  // forces the sandbox off without changing the default for everyone else.
  // See #1562.
  if (process.env.GSTACK_CHROMIUM_NO_SANDBOX === '1') return false;
  const isRoot = typeof process.getuid === 'function' && process.getuid() === 0;
  return !(process.env.CI || process.env.CONTAINER || isRoot);
}

/**
 * Thrown by probePoisonedChromiumBundle() when it finds — and removes — a
 * Chromium bundle poisoned by the pre-v1.64 in-place rebrand (#2242).
 * Call sites rethrow on `instanceof` (never message-string sniffing) so the
 * actionable remediation reaches the user instead of being swallowed by the
 * probe's fall-through-on-failure catch.
 */
export class PoisonedBundleError extends Error {
  constructor(message: string) {
    super(message);
    this.name = 'PoisonedBundleError';
  }
}

/**
 * Self-heal probe for bundles the OLD (pre-v1.64) rebrand code already
 * poisoned (#2242): the mutation lives in the SHARED Playwright cache, so
 * deleting the rebrand code fixes fresh installs only, and the documented
 * deploy paths never run upgrade migrations. Detect the mutated plist and
 * remove the bundle so the next `playwright install chromium` (or the
 * upgrade migration) re-fetches a clean one.
 *
 * Removal scope: when the .app sits in the standard Playwright cache layout
 * (chromium-<rev>/chrome-mac/<name>.app), the WHOLE chromium-<rev> revision
 * dir is removed — Playwright's INSTALLATION_COMPLETE marker lives there,
 * and `playwright install chromium` treats its presence as "is already
 * downloaded", so removing only the .app would turn our own remediation
 * command into a no-op that leaves the user with no browser at all. Outside
 * that layout, the .app plus any sibling INSTALLATION_COMPLETE /
 * DEPENDENCIES_VALIDATED markers are removed.
 *
 * Caller contract: pass ONLY Playwright-cache executables
 * (chromium.executablePath()). A bundle supplied via GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH
 * belongs to the wrapper/embedder — its plist legitimately says "GStack
 * Browser" — and must never be deleted. Both call sites (launchHeaded and
 * handoff) honor this, and as a second belt the probe refuses to act on the
 * GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH executable itself.
 *
 * @param chromiumExecutablePath the Chromium binary inside the .app
 *   (…/<name>.app/Contents/MacOS/<name>), as returned by
 *   chromium.executablePath().
 * @throws PoisonedBundleError after removing a poisoned bundle — the
 *   message carries the re-fetch command for the user.
 */
export function probePoisonedChromiumBundle(chromiumExecutablePath: string): void {
  const fs = require('fs');
  const path = require('path');

  // Belt to the caller contract: never act on the custom/embedder bundle.
  const customPath = process.env.GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH;
  if (customPath && path.resolve(chromiumExecutablePath) === path.resolve(customPath)) {
    return;
  }

  const chromeContentsDir = path.resolve(path.dirname(chromiumExecutablePath), '..');
  const chromePlist = path.join(chromeContentsDir, 'Info.plist');
  if (!fs.existsSync(chromePlist)) return;
  if (!fs.readFileSync(chromePlist, 'utf-8').includes('GStack Browser')) return;

  const appDir = path.resolve(chromeContentsDir, '..');
  const revisionDir = path.resolve(appDir, '..', '..');
  if (/^chromium-\d+$/.test(path.basename(revisionDir))) {
    fs.rmSync(revisionDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
  } else {
    fs.rmSync(appDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
    for (const marker of ['INSTALLATION_COMPLETE', 'DEPENDENCIES_VALIDATED']) {
      fs.rmSync(path.join(path.dirname(appDir), marker), { force: true });
    }
  }
  throw new PoisonedBundleError(
    'Chromium bundle was mutated by a previous gstack version (broken codesign seal — ' +
    'GPU exit_code=5 on macOS 26). The poisoned bundle has been removed. ' +
    'Re-fetch a clean one with: bunx playwright install chromium — then retry.',
  );
}

/** Playwright's public Browser type omits `process()`, which only browsers we launched provide. */
function launchedProcess(browser: Browser | null | undefined): ChildProcess | null {
  const withProcess = browser as (Browser & { process?: () => ChildProcess | null }) | null | undefined;
  return typeof withProcess?.process === 'function' ? withProcess.process() : null;
}

/**
 * #2709: PID of the Chromium browser process gstack launched, read over CDP
 * (`SystemInfo.getProcessInfo`, type "browser") because Playwright 1.62's
 * Browser has no `process()`. Call it only for a launch gstack owns; a
 * connected browser belongs to someone else and must never be reaped. Bounded:
 * a hung or failed CDP call logs once and returns null, which means no reap.
 */
export async function launchedChromiumPid(browser: Browser, timeoutMs = 2_000): Promise<number | null> {
  let timer: ReturnType<typeof setTimeout> | undefined;
  const query = async (): Promise<number | null> => {
    const session = await browser.newBrowserCDPSession();
    try {
      const { processInfo } = await session.send('SystemInfo.getProcessInfo');
      const pid = processInfo.find((p) => p.type === 'browser')?.id;
      return Number.isInteger(pid) && pid! > 0 ? pid! : null;
    } finally {
      await session.detach().catch(() => {});
    }
  };
  try {
    return await Promise.race([
      query(),
      new Promise<never>((_, reject) => {
        timer = setTimeout(() => reject(new Error(`timed out after ${timeoutMs}ms`)), timeoutMs);
      }),
    ]);
  } catch (err) {
    const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
    console.warn(`[browse] Could not record the Chromium PID (CDP SystemInfo.getProcessInfo: ${msg}); browse stop cannot reap a surviving Chromium.`);
    return null;
  } finally {
    clearTimeout(timer);
  }
}

/**
 * Resolve why the underlying Chromium ChildProcess is going away.
 *
 * The 'disconnected' Playwright event fires before the child process emits
 * its own 'exit' in most cases, so .exitCode is null at that moment. Wait
 * briefly (capped at 1s) for the exit then read .exitCode + .signalCode:
 *
 *   exitCode === 0 && no signal  → 'clean'  (user Cmd+Q, normal shutdown)
 *   anything else                → 'crash'  (signal-kill, SIGSEGV, OOM, non-zero exit)
 *
 * Process supervisors (gbrowser's gbd HealthMonitor in cmd/gbd/health.go)
 * read our exit code to decide whether to restart. The two callers in this
 * file ride on top of this: a 'clean' result exits with code 0 (gbd skips
 * restart, treats as user-intent); a 'crash' result keeps the existing
 * per-path exit semantics (launch→1, launchHeaded→2, handoff→1) and gbd
 * restarts on backoff.
 */
export async function resolveDisconnectCause(browser: Browser | null): Promise<'clean' | 'crash'> {
  // `.process()` only exists on browsers we launched ourselves. A browser
  // obtained via connectOverCDP() (or a stub in tests) has no such method —
  // calling it blind throws inside the disconnect handler, which killed the
  // whole daemon with "browser?.process is not a function".
  const proc = launchedProcess(browser);
  if (proc && proc.exitCode === null && proc.signalCode === null) {
    await new Promise<void>((resolve) => {
      const timer = setTimeout(resolve, 1000);
      proc.once('exit', () => {
        clearTimeout(timer);
        resolve();
      });
    });
  }
  return proc?.exitCode === 0 && proc?.signalCode == null ? 'clean' : 'crash';
}

/**
 * Exit-on-disconnect is DAEMON-ONLY semantics. The standalone server
 * entrypoint opts in via markDaemonProcess() (under its import.meta.main
 * gate, same contract as its signal handlers); embedders — gbrowser
 * phoenix, and every test that launches a BrowserManager in-process —
 * must never have a Chromium crash process.exit() their HOST. Observed
 * live before this flag: a test-launched browser died mid-suite and the
 * exit(1) killed the whole bun shard with no terminal summary (the
 * truncation class the strict runner exists to catch).
 */
let daemonProcess = false;
export function markDaemonProcess(): void {
  daemonProcess = true;
}

/**
 * Headless `launch()` disconnect handler. In the standalone daemon: exits 0
 * on clean user-quit, 1 on crash. Embedded contexts get the log line only.
 * Inlined into the launch() body via a one-line dispatch so
 * browser-manager's flow stays grep-friendly.
 */
export async function handleChromiumDisconnect(browser: Browser | null): Promise<void> {
  const cause = await resolveDisconnectCause(browser);
  if (!daemonProcess) {
    console.error(`[browse] Chromium disconnected (${cause}) in an embedded context — host process continues.`);
    return;
  }
  if (cause === 'clean') {
    console.error('[browse] Chromium closed cleanly (user-initiated quit). Server exiting (0).');
    process.exit(0);
  }
  console.error('[browse] FATAL: Chromium process crashed or was killed. Server exiting (1).');
  console.error('[browse] Console/network logs flushed to .gstack/browse-*.log');
  process.exit(1);
}

/**
 * How long a tab-independent read waits on one tab's renderer (#3247). A page
 * stuck in a long script never answers page.evaluate() or page.title(); before
 * this bound, one such tab made /health call the whole daemon unhealthy and
 * hung `tabs`. Kept well under the CLI's /health request timeout
 * (HEALTH_REQUEST_TIMEOUT_MS in cli.ts) so the CLI reads the answer instead of
 * timing out on it.
 */
export const TAB_PROBE_TIMEOUT_MS = 1_000;

/**
 * Budget for saveState()'s per-tab storage read. Longer than the probe: a tab
 * that misses it falls back to the last storage it answered with, which may
 * be stale, so only a tab that is really stuck takes that path.
 */
const TAB_STORAGE_READ_TIMEOUT_MS = 5_000;

type TabStorage = { localStorage: Record<string, string>; sessionStorage: Record<string, string> };
type TabReadKind = 'probe' | 'title' | 'storage';

function urlOrigin(url: string): string {
  return URL.canParse(url) ? new URL(url).origin : '';
}

/**
 * Resolve with `work`'s value, or with undefined once `ms` passes. The losing
 * read settles on its own when the renderer frees up, so callers pass a promise
 * that cannot reject.
 */
function withinTabBudget<T>(work: Promise<T>, ms: number): Promise<T | undefined> {
  let timer: ReturnType<typeof setTimeout> | undefined;
  const deadline = new Promise<undefined>((resolve) => {
    timer = setTimeout(() => resolve(undefined), ms);
    (timer as { unref?: () => void }).unref?.();
  });
  return Promise.race([work, deadline]).finally(() => clearTimeout(timer));
}

export type { RefEntry };

// Re-export TabSession for consumers
export { TabSession };

export interface BrowserState {
  cookies: Cookie[];
  pages: Array<{
    url: string;
    isActive: boolean;
    storage: TabStorage | null;
    /**
     * HTML content loaded via load-html (setContent), replayed after context recreation.
     * In-memory only — never persisted to disk (HTML may contain secrets or customer data).
     */
    loadedHtml?: string;
    loadedHtmlWaitUntil?: 'load' | 'domcontentloaded' | 'networkidle';
    /**
     * Tab owner clientId for multi-agent isolation. Survives context recreation so
     * scoped agents don't get locked out of their own tabs after viewport --scale.
     * In-memory only.
     */
    owner?: string;
  }>;
}

export class BrowserManager {
  private browser: Browser | null = null;
  private context: BrowserContext | null = null;
  // Proxy config applied to chromium.launch() when set (D8). Set by server.ts
  // at startup based on BROWSE_PROXY_URL. For SOCKS5 with auth, server.ts
  // points this at the local bridge (socks5://127.0.0.1:<bridgePort>); for
  // HTTP/HTTPS or unauth SOCKS5, it's the upstream URL directly.
  private proxyConfig: { server: string; bypass?: string; username?: string; password?: string } | null = null;
  private pages: Map<number, Page> = new Map();
  private tabSessions: Map<number, TabSession> = new Map();
  private activeTabId: number = 0;
  private nextTabId: number = 1;
  private extraHeaders: Record<string, string> = {};
  private customUserAgent: string | null = null;
  // #2709: identity of the Chromium child WE launched (headless path). The
  // headless launch has no userDataDir, so killOrphanChromium's SingletonLock
  // walk is a structural no-op for it — `browse stop` reported success while
  // the orphaned GPU process kept spinning. PID alone is not identity (reuse);
  // start time makes the later reap safe (same contract as xvfbPid/xvfbStartTime).
  private chromiumProcInfo: { pid: number; startTime: string } | null = null;

  /** PID + start-time of the launched Chromium child, when we own one. */
  getChromiumProcInfo(): { pid: number; startTime: string } | null {
    return this.chromiumProcInfo;
  }

  // ─── Viewport + deviceScaleFactor (context options) ──────────
  // Tracked at the manager level so recreateContext() preserves them.
  // deviceScaleFactor is a *context* option, not a page-level setter — changes
  // require recreateContext(). Viewport width/height can change on-page, but we
  // track the latest so context recreation restores it instead of hardcoding 1280x720.
  private deviceScaleFactor: number = 1;
  private currentViewport: { width: number; height: number } = { width: 1280, height: 720 };

  /** Server port — set after server starts, used by cookie-import-browser command */
  public serverPort: number = 0;

  // ─── Tab Ownership (multi-agent isolation) ──────────────
  // Maps tabId → clientId. Unowned tabs (not in this map) are root-only for writes.
  private tabOwnership: Map<number, string> = new Map();
  /** Headless launch with BROWSE_EXTENSIONS_DIR: a persistent context (#2281). */
  private extensionContext = false;
  /** Pending and recorded navigation-guard verdicts per page (D2). */
  private navigationGuards = new WeakMap<Page, { pending: Set<Promise<void>>; blocked: string | null }>();
  /** One pending read per page and kind (#3247). A read that outlives its
   * budget stays queued in the renderer until the page frees up, so a stuck
   * tab reuses it instead of collecting a new one on every /health poll,
   * `tabs` call or persist tick. */
  private pendingTabReads = new WeakMap<Page, Map<TabReadKind, Promise<unknown>>>();
  /** The last storage each page answered with, and the origin it came from. */
  private lastTabStorage = new WeakMap<Page, { origin: string; storage: TabStorage }>();
  // Our own 'disconnected' listeners per browser. Detach only these: removing
  // every 'disconnected' listener also strips Playwright's internal one that
  // resolves browser.close(), so each close waited the full race timeout (and
  // Playwright 1.62 has no Browser.process() for the SIGKILL fallback).
  private disconnectHandlers = new WeakMap<Browser, Array<() => void>>();
  private onBrowserDisconnected(browser: Browser | null | undefined, handler: () => void): void {
    if (!browser) return;
    browser.on('disconnected', handler);
    this.disconnectHandlers.set(browser, [...(this.disconnectHandlers.get(browser) ?? []), handler]);
  }
  private detachDisconnectHandlers(browser: Browser | null | undefined): void {
    if (!browser) return;
    for (const handler of this.disconnectHandlers.get(browser) ?? []) browser.off('disconnected', handler);
    this.disconnectHandlers.delete(browser);
  }

  // ─── Dialog Handling (global, not per-tab) ──────────────────
  private dialogAutoAccept: boolean = true;
  private dialogPromptText: string | null = null;

  // ─── Cookie Origin Tracking ────────────────────────────────
  private cookieImportedDomains: Set<string> = new Set();

  // ─── Handoff State ─────────────────────────────────────────
  private isHeaded: boolean = false;
  private consecutiveFailures: number = 0;

  // ─── Watch Mode ─────────────────────────────────────────
  private watching = false;
  public watchInterval: ReturnType<typeof setInterval> | null = null;
  private watchSnapshots: string[] = [];
  private watchStartTime: number = 0;

  // ─── Headed State ────────────────────────────────────────
  private connectionMode: 'launched' | 'headed' = 'launched';

  /**
   * Fired when a RUNNING daemon is promoted to headed mode (see handoff()),
   * as opposed to starting headed. The server uses it to cancel the
   * parent-process watchdog, which was registered on the assumption that mode
   * is fixed at boot and would otherwise kill the freshly handed-off browser
   * the next time the spawning shell exits.
   */
  onHeadedPromotion?: () => void;
  private intentionalDisconnect = false;
  private xvfb: XvfbHandle | null = null;
  private displayAllocation: Promise<void> | null = null;
  private handoffPending: Promise<string> | null = null;
  private activeTabRecovery: Promise<void> | null = null;
  private closing = false;
  private handoffPrevious: { browser: Browser; pages: Map<number, Page>; tabSessions: Map<number, TabSession>; activeTabId: number } | null = null;

  getXvfbHandle(): XvfbHandle | null { return this.xvfb; }

  async ensureHeadedDisplay(): Promise<void> {
    if (this.closing) throw new Error('Browser is shutting down');
    if (this.xvfb) return;
    if (this.displayAllocation) return this.displayAllocation;
    if (!shouldSpawnXvfb({ ...process.env, BROWSE_HEADED: '1' }, process.platform).spawn) return;
    this.displayAllocation = (async () => {
      try {
        const handle = await spawnFreeXvfb();
        if (this.closing) {
          handle.close();
          throw new Error('Browser is shutting down');
        }
        this.xvfb = handle;
      } catch (err) {
        throw new Error(`${err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err)}. ${xvfbInstallHint()}`);
      }
    })();
    try { await this.displayAllocation; }
    finally { this.displayAllocation = null; }
  }

  closeOwnedDisplay(): void {
    this.xvfb?.close();
    this.xvfb = null;
  }

  // ─── Tab Count Guardrail (D5 + Codex single-tab flag) ───────
  // Idempotent threshold trackers: each guardrail fires exactly once per
  // upward crossing of its threshold and re-arms when the tab count drops
  // back below. Pre-guardrail, nothing tracked tab count growth and a
  // user could accumulate hundreds of tabs (each holding 50–300 MB of
  // Chromium-side RSS) without warning until the OS OOM-killer fired.
  // The toast UX lives in the sidebar (extension/sidepanel.js); the
  // server-side responsibility is the audit-trail activity entry that
  // appears in the activity feed even when the sidebar is closed.
  private static readonly TAB_GUARDRAIL_SOFT = 50;
  private static readonly TAB_GUARDRAIL_HARD = 200;
  private tabGuardrailSoftHit = false;
  private tabGuardrailHardHit = false;

  /**
   * Called from context.on('page') after a new tab is tracked. Emits at
   * most one activity entry per upward crossing of each threshold.
   */
  private checkTabGuardrails(): void {
    const total = this.pages.size;
    if (!this.tabGuardrailSoftHit && total >= BrowserManager.TAB_GUARDRAIL_SOFT) {
      this.tabGuardrailSoftHit = true;
      const msg = `Tab count crossed ${BrowserManager.TAB_GUARDRAIL_SOFT} (now ${total}). Consider closing unused tabs — each Chromium tab holds 50–300 MB.`;
      console.warn(`[browse] ${msg}`);
      emitActivity({ type: 'error', command: 'tab-guardrail', error: msg, tabs: total });
    }
    if (!this.tabGuardrailHardHit && total >= BrowserManager.TAB_GUARDRAIL_HARD) {
      this.tabGuardrailHardHit = true;
      const msg = `Tab count crossed ${BrowserManager.TAB_GUARDRAIL_HARD} (now ${total}). OOM risk imminent. Open the sidebar to see top RAM consumers.`;
      console.error(`[browse] ${msg}`);
      emitActivity({ type: 'error', command: 'tab-guardrail', error: msg, tabs: total });
    }
  }

  /** Called from page.on('close') so the guardrails re-arm. */
  private recheckTabGuardrailsOnClose(): void {
    const total = this.pages.size;
    if (this.tabGuardrailSoftHit && total < BrowserManager.TAB_GUARDRAIL_SOFT) {
      this.tabGuardrailSoftHit = false;
    }
    if (this.tabGuardrailHardHit && total < BrowserManager.TAB_GUARDRAIL_HARD) {
      this.tabGuardrailHardHit = false;
    }
  }

  // Called when the headed browser disconnects without intentional teardown
  // (user closed the window). Wired up by server.ts to run full cleanup
  // (terminal agent, state file, profile locks) before exiting with code 2.
  // Returns void or a Promise; rejections are caught and fall back to exit(2).
  // `exitCode` is the resolved process exit code from the disconnect cause:
  // 0 on clean user-initiated quit (e.g., Cmd+Q on headed Chromium), 2 on
  // crash/signal-kill. Callers (server.ts) forward it to their shutdown
  // pipeline so process supervisors (gbrowser's gbd) read the right signal.
  public onDisconnect: ((exitCode?: number) => void | Promise<void>) | null = null;

  getConnectionMode(): 'launched' | 'headed' { return this.connectionMode; }

  // ─── Watch Mode Methods ─────────────────────────────────
  isWatching(): boolean { return this.watching; }

  startWatch(): void {
    this.watching = true;
    this.watchSnapshots = [];
    this.watchStartTime = Date.now();
  }

  stopWatch(): { snapshots: string[]; duration: number } {
    this.watching = false;
    if (this.watchInterval) {
      clearInterval(this.watchInterval);
      this.watchInterval = null;
    }
    const snapshots = this.watchSnapshots;
    const duration = Date.now() - this.watchStartTime;
    this.watchSnapshots = [];
    this.watchStartTime = 0;
    return { snapshots, duration };
  }

  addWatchSnapshot(snapshot: string): void {
    this.watchSnapshots.push(snapshot);
  }

  /**
   * Find the gstack Chrome extension directory.
   * Checks: repo root /extension, global install, dev install.
   */
  private findExtensionPath(): string | null {
    const fs = require('fs');
    const path = require('path');
    const candidates = [
      // Explicit override via env var (used by GStack Browser.app bundle)
      process.env.BROWSE_EXTENSIONS_DIR || '',
      // Relative to this source file (dev mode: browse/src/ -> ../../extension)
      path.resolve(__dirname, '..', '..', 'extension'),
      // Global gstack install
      path.join(process.env.HOME || '', '.claude', 'skills', 'gstack', 'extension'),
      // Git repo root (detected via BROWSE_STATE_FILE location)
      (() => {
        const stateFile = process.env.BROWSE_STATE_FILE || '';
        if (stateFile) {
          const repoRoot = path.resolve(path.dirname(stateFile), '..');
          return path.join(repoRoot, '.claude', 'skills', 'gstack', 'extension');
        }
        return '';
      })(),
    ].filter(Boolean);

    for (const candidate of candidates) {
      try {
        if (fs.existsSync(path.join(candidate, 'manifest.json'))) {
          return candidate;
        }
      } catch (err: any) {
        if (err?.code !== 'ENOENT' && err?.code !== 'EACCES') throw err;
      }
    }
    return null;
  }

  /**
   * Set the proxy config applied to chromium.launch() in launch() and
   * launchHeaded(). Called by server.ts at startup once the (optional) SOCKS5
   * bridge is up.
   */
  setProxyConfig(cfg: { server: string; bypass?: string; username?: string; password?: string } | null): void {
    this.proxyConfig = cfg;
  }

  /**
   * Playwright passes a configured proxy explicitly as --proxy-server, so only
   * a session browse resolved to direct was exposed: `BROWSE_PROXY_URL=direct`
   * on a machine with HTTPS_PROXY set still routed every `goto` through that
   * proxy (#3440 item 8). Direct now means DIRECT_PROXY_ARG on every launch
   * path (headless, the extension context, headed, handoff) wherever Chromium
   * would otherwise pick a proxy browse did not resolve (forcesDirect).
   */
  private proxyLaunchArgs(): string[] {
    return !this.proxyConfig && forcesDirect(process.env) ? [DIRECT_PROXY_ARG] : [];
  }

  /**
   * Get the ref map for external consumers (e.g., /refs endpoint).
   */
  getRefMap(): Array<{ ref: string; role: string; name: string }> {
    try {
      return this.getActiveSession().getRefEntries();
    } catch {
      return [];
    }
  }

  async launch() {
    this.closing = false;
    // ─── Extension Support ────────────────────────────────────
    // BROWSE_EXTENSIONS_DIR points to an unpacked Chrome extension directory.
    // Extensions only run in a persistent context (launch() + newContext()
    // isolates them), so that path uses launchPersistentContext with Chrome's
    // new headless mode: no window, unlike the old off-screen window that
    // macOS still showed (#2281, #432).
    const extensionsDir = process.env.BROWSE_EXTENSIONS_DIR;
    const { STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS, buildGStackLaunchArgs, STEALTH_IGNORE_DEFAULT_ARGS } = await import('./stealth');
    const launchArgs: string[] = [...STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS, ...buildGStackLaunchArgs(), ...this.proxyLaunchArgs()];
    // #2771/#1968: honor GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH headless too (NixOS, macOS 13).
    // That bundle belongs to the user, so the XProtect heal never touches it,
    // and a launch failure names it.
    const executablePath = process.env.GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH || undefined;
    const nameCustomChromium = (err: unknown): never => {
      if (!executablePath) throw err;
      const message = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
      throw new Error(`Chromium at GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH=${executablePath} failed to launch: ${message}\nFix: point GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH at a working Chromium or Chrome binary, or unset it to use Playwright's bundled Chromium.`, { cause: err });
    };

    // Docker/CI/root: Chromium sandbox requires unprivileged user namespaces which
    // are typically disabled in containers and are never available for the root
    // user on Linux. Detect all three cases and add --no-sandbox automatically.
    const isRoot = typeof process.getuid === 'function' && process.getuid() === 0;
    if (process.env.CI || process.env.CONTAINER || isRoot) {
      launchArgs.push('--no-sandbox');
    }

    if (extensionsDir) {
      // Skip --load-extension when running against a custom Chromium build that
      // already bakes the extension in (e.g., GBrowser / GStack Browser.app).
      // Loading it twice causes a ServiceWorkerState::SetWorkerId DCHECK crash.
      if (!isCustomChromium()) {
        launchArgs.push(
          `--disable-extensions-except=${extensionsDir}`,
          `--load-extension=${extensionsDir}`,
        );
      }
      launchArgs.push('--headless=new');
      console.log(`[browse] Extensions loaded from: ${extensionsDir}`);
    }

    // #2709: headless-only GPU flags; headed/GBrowser sessions keep the GPU.
    launchArgs.push(...headlessGpuArgs(process.platform, process.env));

    const contextOptions: BrowserContextOptions = {
      viewport: { width: this.currentViewport.width, height: this.currentViewport.height },
      deviceScaleFactor: this.deviceScaleFactor,
    };
    if (this.customUserAgent) {
      contextOptions.userAgent = this.customUserAgent;
    }

    if (extensionsDir) {
      const profileDir = require('path').join(resolveConfig().stateDir, 'extensions', 'chromium-profile');
      require('fs').mkdirSync(profileDir, { recursive: true, mode: 0o700 });
      cleanSingletonLocks(profileDir);
      this.context = await launchWithXProtectHeal(() => chromium.launchPersistentContext(profileDir, {
        headless: false, // --headless=new in launchArgs: windowless, extensions run
        handleSIGINT: false,
        handleSIGTERM: false,
        handleSIGHUP: false,
        chromiumSandbox: shouldEnableChromiumSandbox(),
        args: launchArgs,
        ignoreDefaultArgs: STEALTH_IGNORE_DEFAULT_ARGS,
        ...contextOptions,
        ...(executablePath ? { executablePath } : {}),
        ...(this.proxyConfig ? { proxy: this.proxyConfig } : {}),
      }), { usesCustomExecutable: Boolean(executablePath) }).catch(nameCustomChromium);
      this.extensionContext = true;
      this.browser = this.context.browser();
      this.onBrowserDisconnected(this.browser, () => {
        void handleChromiumDisconnect(this.browser);
      });
      for (const page of this.context.pages()) await page.close().catch(() => {});
      if (Object.keys(this.extraHeaders).length > 0) {
        await this.context.setExtraHTTPHeaders(this.extraHeaders);
      }
      const { applyStealth } = await import('./stealth');
      await applyStealth(this.context);
      await this.newTab();
      return;
    }

    // XProtect self-heal wrapper (P0 #2554): a macOS definition update can
    // start SIGKILLing the pinned Chromium at spawn. On the classified
    // signature, clear quarantine on the Playwright cache + force-reinstall
    // once, then retry this launch once. A GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH bundle is
    // scoped out of the heal.
    this.browser = await launchWithXProtectHeal(() => chromium.launch({
      headless: true,
      // #2220: the daemon owns signal policy, not Playwright. Playwright's
      // default handlers close Chromium the moment THIS process receives
      // SIGINT/SIGTERM/SIGHUP — which fights the deliberate headless
      // SIGTERM-ignore in server.ts (the daemon survives the signal but
      // loses its browser out from under it). All three are false; server.ts
      // routes the signals it actually honors through activeShutdown, which
      // closes Chromium itself.
      handleSIGINT: false,
      handleSIGTERM: false,
      handleSIGHUP: false,
      // On Windows, Chromium's sandbox fails when the server is spawned through
      // the Bun→Node process chain (GitHub #276). Disable it — local daemon
      // browsing user-specified URLs has marginal sandbox benefit. Also disabled
      // on Linux root/CI/container, where the sandbox requires unprivileged user
      // namespaces that aren't available.
      chromiumSandbox: shouldEnableChromiumSandbox(),
      ...(launchArgs.length > 0 ? { args: launchArgs } : {}),
      ...(executablePath ? { executablePath } : {}),
      ...(this.proxyConfig ? { proxy: this.proxyConfig } : {}),
    }), { usesCustomExecutable: Boolean(executablePath) }).catch(nameCustomChromium);

    // Chromium disconnect → distinguish clean user-quit from crash. Both
    // events look identical to Playwright (one 'disconnected' fires), but
    // the underlying ChildProcess exit code separates them:
    //   exitCode === 0  → clean quit (user Cmd+Q on macOS, normal shutdown)
    //   exitCode !== 0  → crash, signal-kill, or OOM
    // Process supervisors (gbrowser's gbd) consume our exit code: code 0
    // means "user wanted this, don't restart"; non-zero means "crash, please
    // bring me back." Without this distinction every Cmd+Q gets treated as
    // a crash and the user-visible window keeps respawning.
    this.onBrowserDisconnected(this.browser, () => {
      void handleChromiumDisconnect(this.browser);
    });

    // #2709: record the child's identity so the CLI can reap a survivor after
    // daemon shutdown. We launched this browser, so its PID is ours to record.
    {
      const pid = await launchedChromiumPid(this.browser);
      this.chromiumProcInfo = pid ? { pid, startTime: readPidStartTime(pid) } : null;
    }

    this.context = await this.browser.newContext(contextOptions);

    if (Object.keys(this.extraHeaders).length > 0) {
      await this.context.setExtraHTTPHeaders(this.extraHeaders);
    }

    // Apply Layer C stealth (applyStealth): masks navigator.webdriver,
    // restores window.chrome.* shape, aligns Notification.permission, sets
    // per-install hardware, and strips automation globals + the Permissions
    // notifications tell. We still do NOT fake navigator.plugins/languages —
    // faking those to fixed values flags more bot-like, not less (D7).
    const { applyStealth } = await import('./stealth');
    await applyStealth(this.context);

    // Create first tab
    await this.newTab();
  }

  // ─── Headed Mode ─────────────────────────────────────────────
  /**
   * Launch Playwright's bundled Chromium in headed mode with the gstack
   * Chrome extension auto-loaded. Uses launchPersistentContext() which
   * is required for extension loading (launch() + newContext() can't
   * load extensions).
   *
   * The browser launches headed with a visible window — the user sees
   * every action Claude takes in real time.
   */
  async launchHeaded(authToken?: string): Promise<void> {
    this.closing = false;
    await this.ensureHeadedDisplay();
    // Clear old state before repopulating
    this.pages.clear();
    this.tabSessions.clear();
    this.nextTabId = 1;

    // Find the gstack extension directory for auto-loading
    const extensionPath = this.findExtensionPath();
    const { STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS, buildGStackLaunchArgs } = await import('./stealth');
    const launchArgs = [
      '--hide-crash-restore-bubble',
      // Anti-bot-detection: --disable-blink-features=AutomationControlled (and any
      // future blink-level tells) via the shared STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS constant — the
      // same flag launch() and handoff() use, kept in one place instead of a literal.
      ...STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS,
      // GStack Pack 1: per-install hardware/GPU/UA-CH overrides for the
      // C++ patches in gbrowser's Chromium build. Each switch is a no-op
      // on Chromium builds without the corresponding patch (the patch's
      // empty-fallback returns native), so this is safe on stock Playwright
      // Chromium too.
      ...buildGStackLaunchArgs(),
      ...this.proxyLaunchArgs(),
    ];
    if (extensionPath) {
      // Skip --load-extension when running against a custom Chromium build
      // that already bakes the extension in as a component extension
      // (gbrowser / GStack Browser.app). Loading it twice causes a
      // ServiceWorkerState::SetWorkerId DCHECK crash.
      if (!isCustomChromium()) {
        launchArgs.push(`--disable-extensions-except=${extensionPath}`);
        launchArgs.push(`--load-extension=${extensionPath}`);
      }
      // Write auth token for extension bootstrap (still required even when
      // the extension is component-baked — it reads ~/.gstack/.auth.json at
      // startup to learn how to call the daemon).
      // Write to ~/.gstack/.auth.json (not the extension dir, which may be read-only
      // in .app bundles and breaks codesigning).
      if (authToken) {
        const fs = require('fs');
        const path = require('path');
        const gstackDir = path.join(process.env.HOME || '/tmp', '.gstack');
        mkdirSecure(gstackDir);
        const authFile = path.join(gstackDir, '.auth.json');
        try {
          writeSecureFile(authFile, JSON.stringify({ token: authToken, port: this.serverPort || 34567 }));
        } catch (err: any) {
          console.warn(`[browse] Could not write .auth.json: ${err.message}`);
        }
      }
    }

    // Launch headed Chromium via Playwright's persistent context.
    // Extensions REQUIRE launchPersistentContext (not launch + newContext).
    // Real Chrome (executablePath/channel) silently blocks --load-extension,
    // so we use Playwright's bundled Chromium which reliably loads extensions.
    const fs = require('fs');
    const path = require('path');
    const userDataDir = resolveChromiumProfile();
    ensureProjectProfile(userDataDir);
    fs.mkdirSync(userDataDir, { recursive: true });

    // Pre-launch cleanup of stale SingletonLock/Socket/Cookie. Chromium's
    // ProcessSingleton refuses to start when these exist from a prior crash
    // (SIGKILL, hard crash) — the lockfiles point at a PID that may no longer
    // exist. Shutdown cleanup doesn't run on hard crashes, so we clean here
    // too. Safe under external coordination: gbd.lock for gbrowser,
    // single-instance CLI check for gstack.
    cleanSingletonLocks(userDataDir);

    // Support custom Chromium binary via GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH env var.
    // Used by GStack Browser.app to point at the bundled Chromium.
    const executablePath = process.env.GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH || undefined;

    // NOTE (#2242): the in-place "rebrand" that patched the Chromium .app's
    // Info.plist (global "Google Chrome for Testing" → "GStack Browser"
    // replace) and overwrote its Resources/*.icns is deliberately GONE.
    // Chrome for Testing is a code-signed bundle: the global replace renamed
    // CFBundleExecutable to a binary that doesn't exist and the plist/icon
    // writes broke the codesign seal — GPU process exit_code=5, headed mode
    // dead on macOS 26 (#2242, #2138, #2139). Branding belongs in the
    // GStack Browser.app wrapper (GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH), never in a mutation
    // of the signed bundle. Do not reintroduce writes into the Chromium
    // bundle here — browse/test/rebrand-signed-bundle.test.ts fails CI if
    // you do.
    //
    // Self-heal for bundles the OLD code already poisoned: probe the
    // Playwright-cache bundle and remove it when the mutated plist is
    // present (see probePoisonedChromiumBundle for the removal-scope
    // rationale). Scoped to the Playwright cache copy — a
    // GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH bundle belongs to the wrapper/embedder and is
    // never probed.
    if (!executablePath) {
      try {
        probePoisonedChromiumBundle(chromium.executablePath());
      } catch (err: unknown) {
        if (err instanceof PoisonedBundleError) throw err;
        // Probe failures (no bundle yet, EACCES) fall through to launch,
        // which produces its own actionable error.
      }
    }

    // Build custom user agent: report as stock Chrome with the version
    // matching the underlying Chromium binary. D6 (codex #18 correction):
    // the previous "GStackBrowser" branding suffix was itself a high-entropy
    // classifier — sites grepping UA for known browser strings caught us
    // immediately. Branding still lives in the wrapper .app name + Dock icon
    // + tray; it does NOT need to be in the UA string for the product to be
    // "GBrowser." Removing it resolves the "looks like Chrome but identifies
    // as GStackBrowser" contradiction codex flagged.
    let customUA: string | undefined;
    if (!this.customUserAgent) {
      // Detect Chrome version from the Chromium binary
      const chromePath = executablePath || chromium.executablePath();
      try {
        const versionProc = Bun.spawnSync([chromePath, '--version'], {
          stdout: 'pipe', stderr: 'pipe', timeout: 5000,
        });
        const versionOutput = versionProc.stdout.toString().trim();
        // Output like: "Google Chrome for Testing 145.0.6422.0" or "Chromium 145.0.6422.0"
        const versionMatch = versionOutput.match(/(\d+\.\d+\.\d+\.\d+)/);
        const chromeVersion = versionMatch ? versionMatch[1] : '131.0.0.0';
        customUA = `Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_15_7) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/${chromeVersion} Safari/537.36`;
      } catch {
        // Fallback: generic modern Chrome UA
        customUA = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_15_7) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/131.0.0.0 Safari/537.36';
      }
    }

    // T1: strip Playwright's automation-tell defaults. STEALTH_IGNORE_DEFAULT_ARGS
    // covers the originals (extension-loading blockers) plus --enable-automation
    // (kills the "Chrome is being controlled by automated test software" infobar
    // and the chrome-runtime shape changes Playwright otherwise triggers) and
    // three more (--disable-popup-blocking, --disable-component-update,
    // --disable-default-apps — each a documented automation tell per Patchright).
    const { STEALTH_IGNORE_DEFAULT_ARGS } = await import('./stealth');
    // XProtect self-heal wrapper (P0 #2554). usesCustomExecutable scopes the
    // heal out when GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH supplies the bundle — that bundle
    // belongs to the wrapper/embedder and is never quarantine-cleared or
    // reinstalled over (probePoisonedChromiumBundle's scope contract).
    this.context = await launchWithXProtectHeal(() => chromium.launchPersistentContext(userDataDir, {
      headless: false,
      ...(this.xvfb ? { env: { ...process.env, DISPLAY: this.xvfb.display } } : {}),
      // #2220: daemon owns signal policy — see launch() for the rationale.
      handleSIGINT: false,
      handleSIGTERM: false,
      handleSIGHUP: false,
      // Match the sandbox policy used by launch() above. Without this,
      // Playwright auto-adds --no-sandbox on every headed launch and the user
      // sees Chromium's "unsupported command-line flag" yellow infobar.
      chromiumSandbox: shouldEnableChromiumSandbox(),
      args: launchArgs,
      viewport: null,  // Use browser's default viewport (real window size)
      userAgent: this.customUserAgent || customUA,
      ...(executablePath ? { executablePath } : {}),
      ...(this.proxyConfig ? { proxy: this.proxyConfig } : {}),
      ignoreDefaultArgs: STEALTH_IGNORE_DEFAULT_ARGS,
    }), { usesCustomExecutable: Boolean(executablePath) });
    this.browser = this.context.browser();
    this.connectionMode = 'headed';
    this.intentionalDisconnect = false;

    // ─── Anti-bot-detection patches ───────────────────────────────
    // Apply Layer C stealth (applyStealth): masks navigator.webdriver,
    // restores window.chrome.* shape, aligns Notification.permission, sets
    // per-install hardware, and strips automation runtime artifacts (cdc_/
    // __webdriver globals + the Permissions notifications 'denied' tell).
    // We still do NOT fake navigator.plugins/languages — faking those flags
    // more bot-like, not less (D7). The cdc/Permissions cleanup moved into
    // applyStealth so headless launch() and handoff() get it too, not just
    // this headed path.
    const { applyStealth } = await import('./stealth');
    await applyStealth(this.context);

    // Inject visual indicator — subtle top-edge amber gradient
    // Extension's content script handles the floating pill
    const indicatorScript = () => {
      const injectIndicator = () => {
        if (document.getElementById('gstack-ctrl')) return;

        const topLine = document.createElement('div');
        topLine.id = 'gstack-ctrl';
        topLine.style.cssText = `
          position: fixed; top: 0; left: 0; right: 0; height: 2px;
          background: linear-gradient(90deg, #F59E0B, #FBBF24, #F59E0B);
          background-size: 200% 100%;
          animation: gstack-shimmer 3s linear infinite;
          pointer-events: none; z-index: 2147483647;
          opacity: 0.8;
        `;

        const style = document.createElement('style');
        style.textContent = `
          @keyframes gstack-shimmer {
            0% { background-position: 200% 0; }
            100% { background-position: -200% 0; }
          }
          @media (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce) {
            #gstack-ctrl { animation: none !important; }
          }
        `;

        document.documentElement.appendChild(style);
        document.documentElement.appendChild(topLine);
      };
      if (document.readyState === 'loading') {
        document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', injectIndicator);
      } else {
        injectIndicator();
      }
    };
    await this.context.addInitScript(indicatorScript);

    // Track user-created tabs automatically (Cmd+T, link opens in new tab, etc.)
    this.context.on('page', (page) => {
      const id = this.nextTabId++;
      this.pages.set(id, page);
      this.tabSessions.set(id, new TabSession(page));
      this.activeTabId = id;
      this.wirePageEvents(page);
      // Inject indicator on the new tab
      page.evaluate(indicatorScript).catch(() => {});
      console.log(`[browse] New tab detected (id=${id}, total=${this.pages.size})`);
      this.checkTabGuardrails();
    });

    // Persistent context opens a default page — adopt it instead of creating a new one
    const existingPages = this.context.pages();
    if (existingPages.length > 0) {
      const page = existingPages[0];
      const id = this.nextTabId++;
      this.pages.set(id, page);
      this.tabSessions.set(id, new TabSession(page));
      this.activeTabId = id;
      this.wirePageEvents(page);
      // Inject indicator on restored page (addInitScript only fires on new navigations)
      try {
        await page.evaluate(indicatorScript);
      } catch {}
    } else {
      await this.newTab();
    }

    // Browser disconnect handler — distinguish user Cmd+Q from real crash.
    // Clean exit (Chromium exit code 0) → process.exit(0) so process
    // supervisors (gbrowser's gbd) treat it as user intent and skip the
    // restart loop. Crash → process.exit(2) preserves the legacy headed
    // semantics that's distinct from launch()'s code 1.
    // Always calls onDisconnect() first to trigger full shutdown (kill
    // terminal agent, save session, clean profile locks + state file) so
    // crashes don't strand resources either.
    if (this.browser) {
      this.onBrowserDisconnected(this.browser, () => {
        if (this.intentionalDisconnect) return;
        const browserRef = this.browser;
        void (async () => {
          const cause = await resolveDisconnectCause(browserRef);
          const exitCode = cause === 'clean' ? 0 : 2;
          if (cause === 'clean') {
            console.error('[browse] Real browser closed cleanly (user-initiated quit). Server exiting (0).');
          } else {
            console.error('[browse] Real browser disconnected (crash or kill). Server exiting (2).');
            console.error('[browse] Run `$B connect` to reconnect.');
          }
          if (!this.onDisconnect) {
            process.exit(exitCode);
            return;
          }
          try {
            const result = this.onDisconnect(exitCode);
            if (result && typeof (result as Promise<void>).catch === 'function') {
              (result as Promise<void>).catch((err) => {
                console.error('[browse] onDisconnect rejected:', err);
                process.exit(exitCode);
              });
            }
            // onDisconnect is responsible for exit on the success path.
          } catch (err) {
            console.error('[browse] onDisconnect threw:', err);
            process.exit(exitCode);
          }
        })();
      });
    }

    // Headed mode defaults
    this.dialogAutoAccept = false;  // Don't dismiss user's real dialogs
    this.isHeaded = true;
    this.consecutiveFailures = 0;
  }

  // How long close() waits for a graceful shutdown before falling back to
  // SIGKILL (launched mode) or abandoning the context close (headed mode).
  // A field, not a literal, so the SIGKILL fallback is unit-testable without
  // a 5-second wait.
  private closeRaceMs = 5000;

  async close() {
    this.closing = true;
    const previousBrowser = this.handoffPrevious?.browser;
    const currentBrowser = this.browser;
    // unref'd race timer: without unref, every successful close still pins
    // the caller's event loop for the full window.
    const raceTimeout = (ms: number) => new Promise<false>((resolve) => {
      const t = setTimeout(() => resolve(false), ms);
      (t as { unref?: () => void }).unref?.();
    });
    if (this.browser || ((this.connectionMode === 'headed' || this.handoffPrevious) && this.context)) {
      if (this.connectionMode === 'headed' || this.handoffPrevious || this.extensionContext) {
        // Headed/persistent context mode: close the context (which closes the browser)
        this.intentionalDisconnect = true;
        this.detachDisconnectHandlers(this.browser);
        await Promise.race([
          this.context ? this.context.close() : Promise.resolve(),
          raceTimeout(this.closeRaceMs),
        ]).catch(() => {});
      } else if (this.browser) {
        // Launched mode: close the browser we spawned.
        this.detachDisconnectHandlers(this.browser);
        // Grab the child handle BEFORE the race: nulling this.browser after a
        // race-timeout used to ABANDON a live Chromium whose sockets kept the
        // caller's event loop (and keep-alive connections into test servers)
        // open forever — the intermittent whole-suite wedge. If graceful close
        // doesn't finish in time, the child gets SIGKILL, not freedom.
        const child = launchedProcess(this.browser);
        const closed = await Promise.race([
          this.browser.close().then(() => true as const),
          raceTimeout(this.closeRaceMs),
        ]).catch(() => false as const);
        if (closed === false && child && child.exitCode === null && !child.killed) {
          try { child.kill('SIGKILL'); } catch { /* already gone */ }
        }
      }
      this.browser = null;
    }
    if (previousBrowser && previousBrowser !== currentBrowser) {
      this.detachDisconnectHandlers(previousBrowser);
      const child = launchedProcess(previousBrowser);
      const closed = await Promise.race([
        previousBrowser.close().then(() => true), raceTimeout(this.closeRaceMs),
      ]).catch(() => false);
      if (!closed && child && child.exitCode === null && !child.killed) {
        try { child.kill('SIGKILL'); } catch {}
      }
    }
    await this.displayAllocation?.catch(() => {});
    this.closeOwnedDisplay();
  }

  /**
   * Daemon liveness for /health: Chromium is connected. The active tab is NOT
   * part of it (#3247): a page stuck in a long script is one busy tab, not a
   * dead daemon, and the CLI gates every command on this answer — including
   * the tabs, tab, closetab and stop commands that get out of that state.
   * probeActiveTab() reports the tab on its own.
   */
  isHealthy(): boolean {
    return Boolean(this.browser?.isConnected());
  }

  /**
   * Does the active tab's main thread answer within `timeoutMs`? Null when
   * there is no active page. A rejected evaluate (crashed or closing target)
   * also counts as not responsive.
   */
  async probeActiveTab(timeoutMs = TAB_PROBE_TIMEOUT_MS): Promise<{ id: number; responsive: boolean } | null> {
    const id = this.activeTabId;
    const page = this.pages.get(id);
    if (!page) return null;
    const probe = this.sharedTabRead(page, 'probe', () => page.evaluate('1').then(() => true, () => false));
    return { id, responsive: (await withinTabBudget(probe, timeoutMs)) === true };
  }

  /** Join the page's pending read of this kind, or start one. `read` must not
   * reject. */
  private sharedTabRead<T>(page: Page, kind: TabReadKind, read: () => Promise<T>): Promise<T> {
    let reads = this.pendingTabReads.get(page);
    if (!reads) {
      reads = new Map();
      this.pendingTabReads.set(page, reads);
    }
    const pending = reads.get(kind);
    if (pending) return pending as Promise<T>;
    const started = read().finally(() => reads.delete(kind));
    reads.set(kind, started);
    return started;
  }

  // ─── Tab Management ────────────────────────────────────────
  async newTab(url?: string, clientId?: string): Promise<number> {
    if (!this.context) throw new Error('Browser not launched');

    // Validate URL before allocating page to avoid zombie tabs on rejection.
    // Use the normalized return value for navigation — it handles file://./x and
    // file://<segment> cwd-relative forms that the standard URL parser doesn't.
    let normalizedUrl: string | undefined;
    if (url) {
      normalizedUrl = await validateNavigationUrl(url);
    }

    const page = await this.context.newPage();
    const id = this.nextTabId++;
    this.pages.set(id, page);
    this.tabSessions.set(id, new TabSession(page));
    this.activeTabId = id;

    // Record tab ownership for multi-agent isolation
    if (clientId) {
      this.tabOwnership.set(id, clientId);
    }

    // Wire up console/network/dialog capture
    this.wirePageEvents(page);

    if (normalizedUrl) {
      await page.goto(normalizedUrl, { waitUntil: 'domcontentloaded', timeout: 15000 });
    }

    return id;
  }

  async closeTab(id?: number): Promise<void> {
    const tabId = id ?? this.activeTabId;
    const page = this.pages.get(tabId);
    if (!page) throw new Error(`Tab ${tabId} not found`);

    // Capture BEFORE close(): the page 'close' event handler wired in
    // wirePageEvents() can fire while page.close() is awaited. It removes
    // the tab from the maps and reassigns activeTabId (to 0 when no tabs
    // remain), so a post-close `tabId === this.activeTabId` check is
    // order-dependent — whether the event dispatches before or after
    // close() resolves varies across Playwright/Chromium versions and
    // machines, and losing the race means the last-tab auto-create below
    // never runs, leaving the manager with zero tabs.
    const wasActive = tabId === this.activeTabId;

    await page.close();
    this.pages.delete(tabId);
    this.tabSessions.delete(tabId);
    this.tabOwnership.delete(tabId);

    // Switch to another tab if we closed the active one
    if (wasActive) {
      const remaining = [...this.pages.keys()];
      if (remaining.length === 0) {
        // No tabs left — create a new blank one
        await this.newTab();
      } else if (!this.pages.has(this.activeTabId)) {
        // The 'close' handler may have already switched to a valid tab;
        // only reassign when activeTabId no longer points at a live tab.
        this.activeTabId = remaining[remaining.length - 1];
      }
    }
  }

  switchTab(id: number, opts?: { bringToFront?: boolean }): void {
    if (!this.tabSessions.has(id)) throw new Error(`Tab ${id} not found`);
    this.activeTabId = id;
    // Only bring to front when explicitly requested (user-initiated tab switch).
    // Internal tab pinning (BROWSE_TAB) should NOT steal focus.
    if (opts?.bringToFront !== false) {
      const page = this.pages.get(id);
      if (page) page.bringToFront().catch(() => {});
    }
  }

  /**
   * Sync activeTabId to match the tab whose URL matches the Chrome extension's
   * active tab. Called on every /sidebar-tabs poll so manual tab switches in
   * the browser are detected within ~2s.
   */
  syncActiveTabByUrl(activeUrl: string): void {
    if (!activeUrl || this.pages.size <= 1) return;
    // Try exact match first, then fuzzy match (origin+pathname, ignoring query/fragment)
    let fuzzyId: number | null = null;
    let activeOriginPath = '';
    try {
      const u = new URL(activeUrl);
      activeOriginPath = u.origin + u.pathname;
    } catch (err: any) {
      if (!(err instanceof TypeError)) throw err;
    }

    for (const [id, page] of this.pages) {
      try {
        const pageUrl = page.url();
        // Exact match — best case
        if (pageUrl === activeUrl && id !== this.activeTabId) {
          this.activeTabId = id;
          return;
        }
        // Fuzzy match — origin+pathname (handles query param / fragment differences)
        if (activeOriginPath && fuzzyId === null && id !== this.activeTabId) {
          try {
            const pu = new URL(pageUrl);
            if (pu.origin + pu.pathname === activeOriginPath) {
              fuzzyId = id;
            }
          } catch (err: any) {
            if (!(err instanceof TypeError)) throw err;
          }
        }
      } catch {}
    }
    // Fall back to fuzzy match
    if (fuzzyId !== null) {
      this.activeTabId = fuzzyId;
    }
  }

  getActiveTabId(): number {
    return this.activeTabId;
  }

  getTabCount(): number {
    return this.pages.size;
  }

  // ─── Tab Ownership (multi-agent isolation) ──────────────

  /** Get the owner of a tab, or null if unowned (root-only for writes). */
  getTabOwner(tabId: number): string | null {
    return this.tabOwnership.get(tabId) || null;
  }

  /**
   * Check if a client can access a tab.
   *
   * Two policies, distinguished by `options.ownOnly`:
   *
   *   - **own-only (pair-agent over tunnel):** the strict mode. Token must own
   *     the target tab for any access (reads or writes). Unowned user tabs
   *     and tabs owned by other clients are off-limits. Remote agents must
   *     `newtab` first to get a tab they can drive.
   *
   *   - **shared (local skill spawns, default scoped tokens):** permissive on
   *     tab access. The token can read/write any tab — capability is gated
   *     elsewhere (scope checks at /command, rate limits, the dual-listener
   *     allowlist for tunnel-bound traffic). Tab ownership is not a security
   *     boundary for shared tokens; it only matters for pair-agent isolation.
   *     This matches the contract documented in `skill-token.ts:79`
   *     ("skill scripts may switch tabs as needed").
   *
   * Root is unconstrained.
   *
   * `isWrite` is preserved in the signature for callers that want to log or
   * branch on it elsewhere, but the access decision itself only depends on
   * `ownOnly` + ownership map state.
   */
  checkTabAccess(tabId: number, clientId: string, options: { isWrite?: boolean; ownOnly?: boolean } = {}): boolean {
    if (clientId === 'root') return true;
    if (options.ownOnly) {
      const owner = this.tabOwnership.get(tabId);
      return owner === clientId;
    }
    return true;
  }

  /** Transfer tab ownership to a different client. */
  transferTab(tabId: number, toClientId: string): void {
    if (!this.pages.has(tabId)) throw new Error(`Tab ${tabId} not found`);
    this.tabOwnership.set(tabId, toClientId);
  }

  /**
   * Release all tab ownership held by a client (called on revoke / reducing
   * re-pair). Deletes the ownership entries so an own-only client re-pairing
   * under the same name can no longer inherit the revoked agent's
   * authenticated tabs (checkTabAccess gates own-only on owner === clientId).
   * Tabs are NOT closed — leaving the page open is the local human's call, not
   * the daemon's; the residual is a root-only tab. Returns the released ids.
   */
  releaseClientTabs(clientId: string): number[] {
    const released: number[] = [];
    for (const [tabId, owner] of this.tabOwnership) {
      if (owner === clientId) {
        this.tabOwnership.delete(tabId);
        released.push(tabId);
      }
    }
    return released;
  }

  /**
   * Every tab with its title. Titles are read in parallel, each bounded by
   * TAB_PROBE_TIMEOUT_MS: a tab whose renderer is stuck comes back with
   * `busy: true` and an empty title instead of hanging the list (#3247).
   */
  async getTabListWithTitles(): Promise<Array<{ id: number; url: string; title: string; active: boolean; busy: boolean }>> {
    return Promise.all([...this.pages].map(async ([id, page]) => {
      const title = await withinTabBudget(
        this.sharedTabRead(page, 'title', () => page.title().catch(() => '')), TAB_PROBE_TIMEOUT_MS);
      return {
        id,
        url: page.url(),
        title: title ?? '',
        active: id === this.activeTabId,
        busy: title === undefined,
      };
    }));
  }

  // ─── Session Access ────────────────────────────────────────
  /**
   * Restore an active tab when every page was closed outside the CLI (for
   * example, the user closed the headed window). The page 'close' handler is
   * synchronous and cannot open a replacement, which left activeTabId at 0 and
   * every later command, including status and stop, failing with "No active
   * page". closeTab() already opens a blank tab for the last-tab case; this
   * covers the external path. Concurrent callers share one recovery. Returns
   * true when a new tab had to be opened.
   */
  async ensureActiveTab(): Promise<boolean> {
    if (this.tabSessions.has(this.activeTabId)) return false;
    const remaining = [...this.tabSessions.keys()];
    if (remaining.length > 0) {
      this.activeTabId = remaining[remaining.length - 1]!;
      return false;
    }
    if (!this.context) throw new Error('Browser not launched');
    this.activeTabRecovery ??= this.newTab()
      .then(() => {})
      .finally(() => { this.activeTabRecovery = null; });
    await this.activeTabRecovery;
    return true;
  }

  /**
   * Called before every command runs (#3167). status, stop and restart never
   * open a tab, so a daemon whose browser or context is gone can still report
   * and be stopped. Any other command gets an active tab: a failed recovery is
   * BROWSE_TAB_UNRECOVERABLE with the restart command, and a command that runs
   * on a newly opened tab gets the returned one-line warning.
   */
  async ensureCommandTab(command: string): Promise<string | undefined> {
    if (BrowserManager.NO_TAB_RECOVERY.has(command)) return undefined;
    try {
      if (!(await this.ensureActiveTab())) return undefined;
    } catch (err: any) {
      throw new Error(resultLine('browse', 'BROWSE_TAB_UNRECOVERABLE', sanitizeEcho(err?.message ?? String(err))));
    }
    return '[browse] warning: every tab was closed outside browse, so this command ran on a new blank tab; open your page again with: browse goto <url>';
  }
  private static readonly NO_TAB_RECOVERY = new Set(['status', 'stop', 'restart']);

  /** Get the TabSession for the active tab. */
  getActiveSession(): TabSession {
    const session = this.tabSessions.get(this.activeTabId);
    if (!session) throw new Error('No active page. Use "browse goto <url>" first.');
    return session;
  }

  /** Get a TabSession by tab ID. Used by /batch for parallel tab execution. */
  getSession(tabId: number): TabSession {
    const session = this.tabSessions.get(tabId);
    if (!session) throw new Error(`Tab ${tabId} not found`);
    return session;
  }

  /** Get the underlying Page for a tab id. Returns null if the tab doesn't exist.
   *  Used by the CDP bridge (cdp-bridge.ts) to mint per-tab CDPSessions. */
  getPageForTab(tabId: number): Page | null {
    return this.pages.get(tabId) ?? null;
  }

  // ─── Two-tier mutex (Codex T7) ─────────────────────────────
  // Per-tab and global locks for the CDP bridge. tab-scoped methods take the
  // per-tab mutex; browser-scoped methods take the global lock that blocks all
  // tab mutexes. Hard timeout on acquire so silent deadlock can't happen.
  // Every caller MUST use try { ... } finally { release() }.

  private tabLocks: Map<number, Promise<void>> = new Map();
  private globalCdpLockTail: Promise<void> = Promise.resolve();

  /**
   * Acquire the per-tab CDP lock with a timeout. Returns a release fn.
   * Locks chain: each acquire waits on the prior tail's resolution.
   * Browser-scoped global lock takes precedence: while the global lock is
   * held, no tab lock can be acquired (and vice versa).
   */
  async acquireTabLock(tabId: number, timeoutMs: number): Promise<() => void> {
    const existing = this.tabLocks.get(tabId) ?? Promise.resolve();
    // Wait for any held global lock first (cross-tier serialization).
    const tail = Promise.all([existing, this.globalCdpLockTail]).then(() => undefined);
    let release!: () => void;
    const next = new Promise<void>((resolve) => { release = resolve; });
    this.tabLocks.set(tabId, tail.then(() => next));

    const timeoutPromise = new Promise<never>((_, reject) =>
      setTimeout(() => reject(new Error(
        `CDPMutexAcquireTimeout: tab ${tabId} lock not acquired within ${timeoutMs}ms.\n` +
        'Cause: a prior CDP or browser-scoped operation has held the lock too long.\n' +
        'Action: retry; if this repeats, the prior operation may be hung — file a bug.'
      )), timeoutMs),
    );
    try {
      await Promise.race([tail, timeoutPromise]);
    } catch (e) {
      // Acquisition failed; release the slot we reserved so we don't deadlock the queue.
      release();
      throw e;
    }
    return release;
  }

  /**
   * Acquire the global CDP lock. Blocks until all tab locks are released, and
   * blocks new tab-lock acquisitions until released.
   */
  async acquireGlobalCdpLock(timeoutMs: number): Promise<() => void> {
    const allTabTails = Array.from(this.tabLocks.values());
    const priorGlobal = this.globalCdpLockTail;
    const allPrior = Promise.all([priorGlobal, ...allTabTails]).then(() => undefined);
    let release!: () => void;
    const next = new Promise<void>((resolve) => { release = resolve; });
    this.globalCdpLockTail = allPrior.then(() => next);

    const timeoutPromise = new Promise<never>((_, reject) =>
      setTimeout(() => reject(new Error(
        `CDPMutexAcquireTimeout: global CDP lock not acquired within ${timeoutMs}ms.\n` +
        'Cause: in-flight tab operations have not completed.\n' +
        'Action: retry; if this repeats, file a bug — a tab op may be hung.'
      )), timeoutMs),
    );
    try {
      await Promise.race([allPrior, timeoutPromise]);
    } catch (e) {
      release();
      throw e;
    }
    return release;
  }

  // ─── Page Access (delegates to active session) ─────────────
  getPage(): Page {
    return this.getActiveSession().page;
  }

  getCurrentUrl(): string {
    try {
      return this.getPage().url();
    } catch {
      return 'about:blank';
    }
  }

  /**
   * Diagnostic for `$B memory` and the /memory endpoint.
   *
   * Collects:
   *   - Bun process memory (cross-platform, accurate, no shelling).
   *   - Per-tab JS heap via CDP Performance.getMetrics — the most portable
   *     per-tab signal CDP exposes. Misses native/GPU/Skia/cache memory
   *     (Codex flag on the eng-review; see follow-up TODO "native/GPU
   *     memory breakdown").
   *   - Chromium process tree via SystemInfo.getProcessInfo — PID + type
   *     + CPU time. Per-process RSS is NOT exposed via CDP and the eng
   *     review (D2 USE_CDP) explicitly chose CDP over shelling to `ps`,
   *     so RSS columns are absent and `notes[]` says why.
   *
   * `structures` is passed in by the caller (read-commands / server) so
   * browser-manager doesn't take a hard dep on every buffer-owning module.
   */
  async getMemorySnapshot(structures: MemoryStructureStats): Promise<MemorySnapshot> {
    const bunMem = process.memoryUsage();
    const notes: string[] = [];

    // Per-tab JS heap. Lazy: only the pages we already track. A target
    // that died mid-snapshot is omitted, never throws.
    const tabs: MemoryTabSnapshot[] = [];
    for (const [id, page] of this.pages) {
      try {
        const url = (() => { try { return page.url(); } catch { return ''; } })();
        const title = await page.title().catch(() => '');
        const metrics = await withCdpSession(page, async (session) => {
          await session.send('Performance.enable').catch(() => undefined);
          const result = await session.send('Performance.getMetrics');
          return ((result as { metrics?: Array<{ name: string; value: number }> }).metrics) ?? [];
        });
        const mm: Record<string, number> = {};
        for (const m of metrics) mm[m.name] = m.value;
        tabs.push({
          id,
          url,
          title,
          jsHeapUsed: mm.JSHeapUsedSize ?? 0,
          jsHeapTotal: mm.JSHeapTotalSize ?? 0,
          documents: mm.Documents ?? 0,
          nodes: mm.Nodes ?? 0,
          listeners: mm.JSEventListeners ?? 0,
        });
      } catch {
        // Target died or CDP unavailable mid-snapshot — skip this tab.
      }
    }

    // Chromium process tree. Browser handle may be on the `browser` field
    // (launched mode) or accessible via `context.browser()` (persistent
    // context / headed mode); try both.
    let processes: MemoryProcess[] | null = null;
    const browser: Browser | null = this.browser ?? (this.context ? this.context.browser() : null);
    if (browser) {
      try {
        // `newBrowserCDPSession` is browser-wide. Not exposed on every
        // Playwright TypeScript surface, but present at runtime on the
        // Browser instance — use a typed cast to avoid the @ts-expect-error.
        type BrowserWithCDP = Browser & {
          newBrowserCDPSession?: () => Promise<{
            send: (method: string, params?: unknown) => Promise<unknown>;
            detach: () => Promise<void>;
          }>;
        };
        const maybeFactory = (browser as BrowserWithCDP).newBrowserCDPSession;
        if (typeof maybeFactory === 'function') {
          const browserSession = await maybeFactory.call(browser);
          try {
            const info = (await browserSession.send('SystemInfo.getProcessInfo')) as {
              processInfo?: Array<{ id: number; type: string; cpuTime: number }>;
            };
            processes = (info.processInfo ?? []).map((p) => ({
              id: p.id,
              type: p.type,
              cpuTime: p.cpuTime,
            }));
            notes.push(
              'Per-Chromium-process RSS not collected — SystemInfo.getProcessInfo exposes PID+type+CPU only. ' +
              'See follow-up TODO "native/GPU memory breakdown" for the deferred fix.',
            );
          } finally {
            await browserSession.detach().catch(() => undefined);
          }
        } else {
          notes.push('Playwright build does not expose newBrowserCDPSession; per-process info skipped.');
        }
      } catch (err: any) {
        notes.push(`CDP browser session unavailable: ${err?.message ?? String(err)}`);
      }
    } else {
      notes.push('Browser handle unavailable (server connection mode); per-process info skipped.');
    }

    return {
      bunServer: {
        rss: bunMem.rss,
        heapUsed: bunMem.heapUsed,
        heapTotal: bunMem.heapTotal,
        external: bunMem.external,
      },
      tabs,
      processes,
      structures,
      capturedAt: Date.now(),
      notes,
    };
  }

  // ─── Ref Map (delegates to active session) ──────────────────
  setRefMap(refs: Map<string, RefEntry>) {
    this.getActiveSession().setRefMap(refs);
  }

  clearRefs() {
    this.getActiveSession().clearRefs();
  }

  async resolveRef(selector: string): Promise<{ locator: Locator } | { selector: string }> {
    return this.getActiveSession().resolveRef(selector);
  }

  getRefRole(selector: string): string | null {
    return this.getActiveSession().getRefRole(selector);
  }

  getRefCount(): number {
    return this.getActiveSession().getRefCount();
  }

  // ─── Snapshot Diffing (delegates to active session) ─────────
  setLastSnapshot(text: string | null) {
    this.getActiveSession().setLastSnapshot(text);
  }

  getLastSnapshot(): string | null {
    return this.getActiveSession().getLastSnapshot();
  }

  // ─── Dialog Control ───────────────────────────────────────
  setDialogAutoAccept(accept: boolean) {
    this.dialogAutoAccept = accept;
  }

  getDialogAutoAccept(): boolean {
    return this.dialogAutoAccept;
  }

  setDialogPromptText(text: string | null) {
    this.dialogPromptText = text;
  }

  getDialogPromptText(): string | null {
    return this.dialogPromptText;
  }

  // ─── Cookie Origin Tracking ────────────────────────────────
  trackCookieImportDomains(domains: string[]): void {
    for (const d of domains) this.cookieImportedDomains.add(d);
  }

  getCookieImportedDomains(): ReadonlySet<string> {
    return this.cookieImportedDomains;
  }

  hasCookieImports(): boolean {
    return this.cookieImportedDomains.size > 0;
  }

  // ─── Viewport ──────────────────────────────────────────────
  async setViewport(width: number, height: number) {
    this.currentViewport = { width, height };
    await this.getPage().setViewportSize({ width, height });
  }

  /**
   * Undo a `viewport WxH` pin. Headless contexts restore the 1280x720 launch
   * default. Headed contexts launch with `viewport: null`, but Playwright has no
   * way to drop a page's emulated size, so the active tab gets a fresh page in
   * the same context (cookies and storage persist, refs reset as on navigation).
   */
  async resetViewport(): Promise<'window' | 'default'> {
    this.currentViewport = { width: 1280, height: 720 };
    if (this.connectionMode !== 'headed') {
      await this.getPage().setViewportSize(this.currentViewport);
      return 'default';
    }
    if (!this.context) throw new Error('Browser not launched');

    const tabId = this.activeTabId;
    const pinned = this.getPage();
    const loaded = this.getActiveSession().getLoadedHtml();
    const url = pinned.url();
    const page = await this.context.newPage();
    const session = new TabSession(page);
    this.wirePageEvents(page);
    try {
      if (loaded) await session.setTabContent(loaded.html, { waitUntil: loaded.waitUntil });
      else if (url !== 'about:blank') await page.goto(url, { waitUntil: 'domcontentloaded', timeout: 15000 });
    } catch (err) {
      await page.close().catch(() => {});
      throw err;
    }
    this.pages.set(tabId, page);
    this.tabSessions.set(tabId, session);
    await pinned.close().catch(() => {});
    await page.bringToFront().catch(() => {});
    return 'window';
  }

  // ─── Extra Headers ─────────────────────────────────────────
  async setExtraHeader(name: string, value: string) {
    this.extraHeaders[name] = value;
    if (this.context) {
      await this.context.setExtraHTTPHeaders(this.extraHeaders);
    }
  }

  // ─── User Agent ────────────────────────────────────────────
  setUserAgent(ua: string) {
    this.customUserAgent = ua;
  }

  getUserAgent(): string | null {
    return this.customUserAgent;
  }

  // ─── Lifecycle helpers ───────────────────────────────
  /**
   * Close all open pages and clear the pages map.
   * Used by state load to replace the current session.
   */
  async closeAllPages(): Promise<void> {
    for (const page of this.pages.values()) {
      await page.close().catch(() => {});
    }
    this.pages.clear();
    this.tabSessions.clear();
  }

  // ─── Frame context (delegates to active session) ────────────
  setFrame(frame: import('playwright').Frame | null): void {
    this.getActiveSession().setFrame(frame);
  }

  getFrame(): import('playwright').Frame | null {
    return this.getActiveSession().getFrame();
  }

  getActiveFrameOrPage(): import('playwright').Page | import('playwright').Frame {
    return this.getActiveSession().getActiveFrameOrPage();
  }

  // ─── State Save/Restore (shared by recreateContext + handoff) ─
  /**
   * Capture browser state: cookies, localStorage, sessionStorage, URLs, active tab.
   * Skips the storage of pages that fail the read (e.g., already closed).
   * A page whose renderer is stuck past TAB_STORAGE_READ_TIMEOUT_MS does not
   * hold up `state save` (#3247); see readTabStorage() for what it gets.
   */
  async saveState(): Promise<BrowserState> {
    if (!this.context) throw new Error('Browser not launched');

    const cookies = await this.context.cookies();
    const pages: BrowserState['pages'] = [];

    for (const [id, page] of this.pages) {
      const url = page.url();
      const storage = await this.readTabStorage(page, url);

      // Capture load-html content so a later context recreation (viewport --scale)
      // can replay it via setTabContent. Never persisted to disk.
      const session = this.tabSessions.get(id);
      const loaded = session?.getLoadedHtml();
      // Preserve tab ownership through recreation so scoped agents aren't locked out.
      const owner = this.tabOwnership.get(id);

      pages.push({
        url: url === 'about:blank' ? '' : url,
        isActive: id === this.activeTabId,
        storage,
        loadedHtml: loaded?.html,
        loadedHtmlWaitUntil: loaded?.waitUntil,
        owner,
      });
    }

    return { cookies, pages };
  }

  /**
   * One tab's localStorage/sessionStorage for saveState(). A failed read
   * (closed page, opaque origin) is null. A read that times out returns the
   * last storage this page gave for the same origin: a periodic
   * BROWSE_PERSIST_STATE snapshot must not replace good storage on disk with
   * null just because the page is busy.
   */
  private async readTabStorage(page: Page, url: string): Promise<TabStorage | null> {
    const origin = urlOrigin(url);
    const read = await withinTabBudget(this.sharedTabRead(page, 'storage', () => page.evaluate(() => ({
      localStorage: { ...localStorage },
      sessionStorage: { ...sessionStorage },
    })).catch(() => null)), TAB_STORAGE_READ_TIMEOUT_MS);
    if (read === undefined) {
      const last = this.lastTabStorage.get(page);
      return last?.origin === origin ? last.storage : null;
    }
    if (read) this.lastTabStorage.set(page, { origin, storage: read });
    else this.lastTabStorage.delete(page);
    return read;
  }

  /**
   * Restore browser state into the current context: cookies, pages, storage.
   * Navigates to saved URLs, restores storage, wires page events.
   * Failures on individual pages are swallowed — partial restore is better than none.
   */
  async restoreState(state: BrowserState): Promise<void> {
    if (!this.context) throw new Error('Browser not launched');

    // Restore cookies
    if (state.cookies.length > 0) {
      await this.context.addCookies(state.cookies);
    }

    // Clear stale ownership — the old tab IDs are gone. We'll re-add per-tab
    // owners below as each saved tab gets a fresh ID. Without this reset, old
    // tabId → clientId entries would linger and match new tabs with the same
    // sequential IDs, silently granting ownership to the wrong clients.
    this.tabOwnership.clear();

    // Re-create pages
    let activeId: number | null = null;
    for (const saved of state.pages) {
      const page = await this.context.newPage();
      const id = this.nextTabId++;
      this.pages.set(id, page);
      const newSession = new TabSession(page);
      this.tabSessions.set(id, newSession);
      this.wirePageEvents(page);

      // Restore tab ownership for the new ID — preserves scoped-agent isolation
      // across context recreation (viewport --scale, user-agent change, handoff).
      if (saved.owner) {
        this.tabOwnership.set(id, saved.owner);
      }

      if (saved.loadedHtml) {
        // Replay load-html content via setTabContent — this rehydrates
        // TabSession.loadedHtml so the next saveState sees it. page.setContent()
        // alone would restore the DOM but lose the replay metadata.
        try {
          await newSession.setTabContent(saved.loadedHtml, { waitUntil: saved.loadedHtmlWaitUntil });
        } catch (err: any) {
          console.warn(`[browse] Failed to replay loadedHtml for tab ${id}: ${err.message}`);
        }
      } else if (saved.url) {
        // Validate the saved URL before navigating — the state file is user-writable and
        // a tampered URL could navigate to cloud metadata endpoints. Use the normalized
        // return value so file:// forms get consistent treatment with live goto.
        let normalizedUrl: string;
        try {
          normalizedUrl = await validateNavigationUrl(saved.url);
        } catch (err: any) {
          console.warn(`[browse] Skipping invalid URL in state file: ${saved.url} — ${err.message}`);
          continue;
        }
        await page.goto(normalizedUrl, { waitUntil: 'domcontentloaded', timeout: 15000 }).catch(() => {});
      }

      if (saved.storage) {
        try {
          await page.evaluate((s: { localStorage: Record<string, string>; sessionStorage: Record<string, string> }) => {
            if (s.localStorage) {
              for (const [k, v] of Object.entries(s.localStorage)) {
                localStorage.setItem(k, v);
              }
            }
            if (s.sessionStorage) {
              for (const [k, v] of Object.entries(s.sessionStorage)) {
                sessionStorage.setItem(k, v);
              }
            }
          }, saved.storage);
        } catch {}
      }

      if (saved.isActive) activeId = id;
    }

    // If no pages were saved, create a blank one
    if (this.pages.size === 0) {
      await this.newTab();
    } else {
      this.activeTabId = activeId ?? [...this.pages.keys()][0];
    }

    // Clear refs — pages are new, locators are stale
    this.clearRefs();
  }

  /**
   * Recreate the browser context to apply user agent changes.
   * Saves and restores cookies, localStorage, sessionStorage, and open pages.
   * Falls back to a clean slate on any failure.
   */
  async recreateContext(): Promise<string | null> {
    if (this.connectionMode === 'headed') {
      throw new Error('Cannot recreate context in headed mode. Use disconnect first.');
    }
    if (this.extensionContext) {
      throw new Error('Cannot recreate context while BROWSE_EXTENSIONS_DIR extensions are loaded (persistent context). Restart browse with the new settings instead.');
    }
    if (!this.browser || !this.context) {
      throw new Error('Browser not launched');
    }

    try {
      // 1. Save state
      const state = await this.saveState();

      // 2. Close old pages and context
      for (const page of this.pages.values()) {
        await page.close().catch(() => {});
      }
      this.pages.clear();
      this.tabSessions.clear();
      await this.context.close().catch(() => {});

      // 3. Create new context with updated settings
      const contextOptions: BrowserContextOptions = {
        viewport: { width: this.currentViewport.width, height: this.currentViewport.height },
        deviceScaleFactor: this.deviceScaleFactor,
      };
      if (this.customUserAgent) {
        contextOptions.userAgent = this.customUserAgent;
      }
      this.context = await this.browser.newContext(contextOptions);

      // Re-apply stealth: newContext() is a fresh context with no init scripts,
      // so a useragent / viewport --scale rebuild would otherwise drop the
      // webdriver mask, window.chrome.* shape, hardware spoof, and cdc/
      // Permissions cleanup on every restored page. Must run before
      // restoreState() navigates the restored tabs.
      const { applyStealth } = await import('./stealth');
      await applyStealth(this.context);

      if (Object.keys(this.extraHeaders).length > 0) {
        await this.context.setExtraHTTPHeaders(this.extraHeaders);
      }

      // 4. Restore state
      await this.restoreState(state);

      return null; // success
    } catch (err: unknown) {
      // Fallback: create a clean context + blank tab
      try {
        this.pages.clear();
        this.tabSessions.clear();
        if (this.context) await this.context.close().catch(() => {});

        const contextOptions: BrowserContextOptions = {
          viewport: { width: this.currentViewport.width, height: this.currentViewport.height },
          deviceScaleFactor: this.deviceScaleFactor,
        };
        if (this.customUserAgent) {
          contextOptions.userAgent = this.customUserAgent;
        }
        this.context = await this.browser!.newContext(contextOptions);
        // Stealth applies to the fallback blank context too.
        const { applyStealth } = await import('./stealth');
        await applyStealth(this.context);
        await this.newTab();
        this.clearRefs();
      } catch {
        // If even the fallback fails, we're in trouble — but browser is still alive
      }
      return `Context recreation failed: ${err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err)}. Browser reset to blank tab.`;
    }
  }

  /**
   * Change deviceScaleFactor + viewport size atomically.
   *
   * deviceScaleFactor is a context-level option, so Playwright requires a full context
   * recreation. This method validates the input, stores the new values, calls
   * recreateContext(), and rolls back the fields on failure so a bad call doesn't
   * leave the manager in an inconsistent state.
   *
   * Returns null on success, or an error string if the new context couldn't be built
   * (state may have been lost, per recreateContext's fallback behavior).
   */
  async setDeviceScaleFactor(scale: number, width: number, height: number): Promise<string | null> {
    if (!Number.isFinite(scale)) {
      throw new Error(`viewport --scale: value must be a finite number, got ${scale}`);
    }
    if (scale < 1 || scale > 3) {
      throw new Error(`viewport --scale: value must be between 1 and 3 (gstack policy cap), got ${scale}`);
    }
    if (this.connectionMode === 'headed') {
      throw new Error('viewport --scale is not supported in headed mode — scale is controlled by the real browser window.');
    }

    const prevScale = this.deviceScaleFactor;
    const prevViewport = { ...this.currentViewport };
    this.deviceScaleFactor = scale;
    this.currentViewport = { width, height };

    const err = await this.recreateContext();
    if (err !== null) {
      // recreateContext's fallback path built a blank context using the NEW scale +
      // viewport (the fields we just set). Rolling the fields back without a second
      // recreate would leave the live context at new-scale while state says old-scale.
      // Roll back fields FIRST, then force a second recreate against the old values
      // so live state matches tracked state.
      this.deviceScaleFactor = prevScale;
      this.currentViewport = prevViewport;
      const rollbackErr = await this.recreateContext();
      if (rollbackErr !== null) {
        // Second recreate also failed — we're in a clean blank slate via fallback, but
        // with old scale. Return the original error so the caller sees the primary failure.
        return `${err} (rollback also encountered: ${rollbackErr})`;
      }
      return err;
    }
    return null;
  }

  /** Read current deviceScaleFactor (for tests + debug). */
  getDeviceScaleFactor(): number {
    return this.deviceScaleFactor;
  }

  /** Read current tracked viewport (for tests + `viewport --scale` size fallback). */
  getCurrentViewport(): { width: number; height: number } {
    return { ...this.currentViewport };
  }

  // ─── Handoff: Headless → Headed ─────────────────────────────
  /**
   * Hand off browser control to the user by relaunching in headed mode.
   *
   * Flow (launch-first-close-second for safe rollback):
   *   1. Save state from current headless browser
   *   2. Launch NEW headed browser
   *   3. Restore state into new browser
   *   4. Close OLD headless browser
   *   If step 2 fails → return error, headless browser untouched
   */
  async handoff(message: string): Promise<string> {
    if (this.handoffPending) return this.handoffPending;
    this.handoffPending = this.promoteToHeaded(message);
    try { return await this.handoffPending; }
    finally { this.handoffPending = null; }
  }

  private async promoteToHeaded(message: string): Promise<string> {
    if (this.closing) return 'ERROR: Browser is shutting down';
    if (this.connectionMode === 'headed' || this.isHeaded) {
      return `HANDOFF: Already in headed mode at ${this.getCurrentUrl()}`;
    }
    if (!this.browser || !this.context) {
      throw new Error('Browser not launched');
    }

    // 1. Save state from current browser
    const state = await this.saveState();
    if (this.closing) return 'ERROR: Browser is shutting down';
    const currentUrl = this.getCurrentUrl();
    const previousDisplay = this.xvfb;

    // 2. Launch new headed browser with extension (same as launchHeaded)
    //    Uses launchPersistentContext so the extension auto-loads.
    let newContext: BrowserContext;
    try {
      await this.ensureHeadedDisplay();
      const fs = require('fs');
      const path = require('path');
      const extensionPath = this.findExtensionPath();
      const { STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS, buildGStackLaunchArgs } = await import('./stealth');
      // Same blink-level stealth flags as launch()/launchHeaded(). Without
      // STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS the handed-off browser kept the AutomationControlled
      // tell that the other two paths strip.
      const launchArgs: string[] = ['--hide-crash-restore-bubble', ...STEALTH_LAUNCH_ARGS, ...buildGStackLaunchArgs(), ...this.proxyLaunchArgs()];
      if (extensionPath) {
        launchArgs.push(`--disable-extensions-except=${extensionPath}`);
        launchArgs.push(`--load-extension=${extensionPath}`);
        // Auth token is served via POST /extension-token (pinned-origin
        // bootstrap, no file write needed). /health is liveness-only.
        console.log(`[browse] Handoff: loading extension from ${extensionPath}`);
      } else {
        console.log('[browse] Handoff: extension not found — headed mode without side panel');
      }

      // Same profile resolution + singleton-lock cleanup as launchHeaded().
      // This path previously hardcoded ~/.gstack/chromium-profile, silently
      // ignoring $CHROMIUM_PROFILE / $GSTACK_HOME and skipping the lock
      // cleanup — the third shipped drift between the three launch paths.
      const userDataDir = resolveChromiumProfile();
      ensureProjectProfile(userDataDir);
      fs.mkdirSync(userDataDir, { recursive: true });
      cleanSingletonLocks(userDataDir);

      // Self-heal probe (#2242): handoff always launches the Playwright-cache
      // bundle (this launchPersistentContext call passes no executablePath),
      // so a bundle poisoned by the old in-place rebrand would GPU-crash here
      // exactly like launchHeaded(). Same probe, same contract: a
      // GSTACK_CHROMIUM_PATH bundle is never passed in. The rethrown typed
      // error surfaces through the outer catch as the actionable
      // "Cannot open headed browser" message, headless browser untouched.
      try {
        probePoisonedChromiumBundle(chromium.executablePath());
      } catch (err: unknown) {
        if (err instanceof PoisonedBundleError) throw err;
        // Probe failures (no bundle yet, EACCES) fall through to launch.
      }

      // T1: same automation-tell-stripping defaults as launchHeaded().
      // The handoff path (headless → headed re-launch) takes the same
      // anti-detection posture.
      const { STEALTH_IGNORE_DEFAULT_ARGS } = await import('./stealth');
      // XProtect self-heal wrapper (P0 #2554): handoff always launches the
      // Playwright-cache bundle (no executablePath), so the heal applies
      // exactly as in launch()/launchHeaded().
      newContext = await launchWithXProtectHeal(() => chromium.launchPersistentContext(userDataDir, {
        headless: false,
        ...(this.xvfb ? { env: { ...process.env, DISPLAY: this.xvfb.display } } : {}),
        // #2220: daemon owns signal policy — see launch() for the rationale.
        handleSIGINT: false,
        handleSIGTERM: false,
        handleSIGHUP: false,
        // Match the sandbox policy used by launchHeaded() / launch(). The
        // handoff path is the headless→headed re-launch and shares the same
        // anti-detection posture, including no spurious --no-sandbox infobar.
        chromiumSandbox: shouldEnableChromiumSandbox(),
        args: launchArgs,
        viewport: null,
        ...(this.proxyConfig ? { proxy: this.proxyConfig } : {}),
        ignoreDefaultArgs: STEALTH_IGNORE_DEFAULT_ARGS,
        timeout: 15000,
      }));
      if (this.closing) {
        await newContext.close().catch(() => {});
        throw new Error('Browser is shutting down');
      }
    } catch (err: unknown) {
      if (!previousDisplay) this.closeOwnedDisplay();
      if (this.closing) return 'ERROR: Browser is shutting down';
      const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
      return `ERROR: Cannot open headed browser — ${msg}. Headless browser still running.`;
    }

    const previous = {
      browser: this.browser, context: this.context,
      pages: this.pages, tabSessions: this.tabSessions, tabOwnership: this.tabOwnership,
      activeTabId: this.activeTabId, nextTabId: this.nextTabId,
      connectionMode: this.connectionMode, isHeaded: this.isHeaded,
      dialogAutoAccept: this.dialogAutoAccept, intentionalDisconnect: this.intentionalDisconnect,
      chromiumProcInfo: this.chromiumProcInfo,
      tabGuardrailSoftHit: this.tabGuardrailSoftHit, tabGuardrailHardHit: this.tabGuardrailHardHit,
    };
    this.handoffPrevious = previous;
    try {
      this.context = newContext;
      this.browser = newContext.browser();
      this.pages = new Map();
      this.tabSessions = new Map();
      this.tabOwnership = new Map();

      // Same Layer C stealth as launch()/launchHeaded(). Must run BEFORE
      // restoreState() navigates so the init scripts apply to the restored
      // pages — without this the handed-off browser had cmdline args but no
      // JS stealth (no webdriver mask, no chrome.* shape, no toString proxy).
      const { applyStealth } = await import('./stealth');
      await applyStealth(newContext);

      if (Object.keys(this.extraHeaders).length > 0) {
        await newContext.setExtraHTTPHeaders(this.extraHeaders);
      }

      await this.restoreState(state);
      if (this.closing) throw new Error('Browser is shutting down');

      if (this.browser) {
        const browserRef = this.browser;
        this.onBrowserDisconnected(this.browser, () => {
          if (this.intentionalDisconnect) return;
          void handleChromiumDisconnect(browserRef);
        });
      }

      this.connectionMode = 'headed';
      this.isHeaded = true;
      this.dialogAutoAccept = false;  // User controls dialogs in headed mode
      this.chromiumProcInfo = null;
      try { this.onHeadedPromotion?.(); }
      catch (err) { console.warn('[browse] Headed promotion callback failed:', err); }

      // 4. Close old headless browser (fire-and-forget)
      this.detachDisconnectHandlers(previous.browser);
      previous.browser.close().catch(() => {});

      return [
        `HANDOFF: Browser opened at ${currentUrl}`,
        ...(this.xvfb ? ['DISPLAY: Off-screen Xvfb; a separate remote desktop is required for human interaction.'] : []),
        `MESSAGE: ${message}`,
        `STATUS: Waiting for user. Run 'resume' when done.`,
      ].join('\n');
    } catch (err: unknown) {
      await newContext.close().catch(() => {});
      if (!this.closing) {
        Object.assign(this, previous);
        this.recheckTabGuardrailsOnClose();
      }
      if (!previousDisplay) this.closeOwnedDisplay();
      if (this.closing) return 'ERROR: Browser is shutting down';
      const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
      return `ERROR: Handoff failed during state restore — ${msg}. Headless browser still running.`;
    } finally {
      this.handoffPrevious = null;
    }
  }

  /**
   * Resume AI control after user handoff.
   * Clears stale refs and resets failure counter.
   * The meta-command handler calls handleSnapshot() after this.
   */
  resume(): void {
    // Clear refs and frame on the active session
    try {
      const session = this.getActiveSession();
      session.clearRefs();
      session.setFrame(null);
    } catch {}
    this.resetFailures();
  }

  getIsHeaded(): boolean {
    return this.isHeaded;
  }

  // ─── Auto-handoff Hint (consecutive failure tracking) ───────
  incrementFailures(): void {
    this.consecutiveFailures++;
  }

  resetFailures(): void {
    this.consecutiveFailures = 0;
  }

  getFailureHint(): string | null {
    if (this.consecutiveFailures >= 3 && !this.isHeaded) {
      return `HINT: ${this.consecutiveFailures} consecutive failures. Consider using 'handoff' to let the user help.`;
    }
    return null;
  }

  /**
   * Run a command and surface any navigation the guard blocked while it ran.
   * The block reason replaces the command's own result or error (often
   * "navigation interrupted"), so the caller learns why the tab is blank.
   */
  async failIfNavigationBlocked<T>(page: Page, work: Promise<T>): Promise<T> {
    const outcome = await work.then((value) => ({ value }), (error) => ({ error }));
    const guard = this.navigationGuards.get(page);
    while (guard && guard.pending.size > 0) await Promise.all([...guard.pending]);
    const blocked = guard?.blocked ?? null;
    if (guard) guard.blocked = null;
    if (blocked) throw new Error(blocked);
    if ('error' in outcome) throw outcome.error;
    return outcome.value;
  }

  /**
   * D2: validateNavigationUrl only sees explicit navigations. Redirect hops and
   * page-driven navigations (links, scripts, forms, frames) arrive here as
   * navigation requests; one that targets a blocked address blanks the tab and
   * is reported by failIfNavigationBlocked.
   */
  private guardNavigations(page: Page): void {
    if (this.navigationGuards.has(page)) return;
    const guard = { pending: new Set<Promise<void>>(), blocked: null as string | null };
    this.navigationGuards.set(page, guard);
    page.on('request', (req) => {
      if (!req.isNavigationRequest()) return;
      const check: Promise<void> = blockedNavigationReason(req.url()).then(async (reason) => {
        if (!reason || page.isClosed()) return;
        guard.blocked = reason;
        console.warn(`[browse] ${reason} (navigation from ${req.frame().url() || 'a new page'}; tab reset to about:blank)`);
        // A target that fails fast commits its error page around the reset, so
        // let it settle (bounded; a hanging target is cut off by the reset),
        // then blank the tab until it stays blank (about:blank loads at once).
        await Promise.race([req.response().catch(() => null), new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, 1_000))]);
        // Leaving an error page can commit a second about:blank after the reset
        // resolves; wait for the main frame to stay quiet so the next command's
        // navigation is not interrupted by it.
        for (let attempt = 0; attempt < 3 && !page.isClosed(); attempt++) {
          await page.goto('about:blank', { waitUntil: 'load', timeout: 5_000 }).catch(() => {});
          const late = await page.waitForEvent('framenavigated', { predicate: (frame) => frame === page.mainFrame(), timeout: 250 })
            .then(() => true, () => false);
          if (!late && page.url() === 'about:blank') break;
        }
      }).finally(() => { guard.pending.delete(check); });
      guard.pending.add(check);
    });
  }

  // ─── Console/Network/Dialog/Ref Wiring ────────────────────
  private wirePageEvents(page: Page) {
    const pages = this.pages;
    const tabSessions = this.tabSessions;
    this.guardNavigations(page);
    // Track tab close — remove from pages and sessions maps, switch to another tab
    page.on('close', () => {
      for (const [id, p] of pages) {
        if (p === page) {
          pages.delete(id);
          tabSessions.delete(id);
          console.log(`[browse] Tab closed (id=${id}, remaining=${pages.size})`);
          // If the closed tab was active, switch to another
          const remaining = [...pages.keys()];
          const fallback = remaining.length > 0 ? remaining[remaining.length - 1]! : 0;
          if (pages === this.pages) {
            if (this.activeTabId === id) this.activeTabId = fallback;
          } else if (this.handoffPrevious?.pages === pages && this.handoffPrevious.activeTabId === id) {
            this.handoffPrevious.activeTabId = fallback;
          }
          break;
        }
      }
      if (pages === this.pages) this.recheckTabGuardrailsOnClose();
    });

    // Clear ref map on navigation — refs point to stale elements after page change
    // (lastSnapshot is NOT cleared — it's a text baseline for diffing)
    page.on('framenavigated', (frame) => {
      if (frame === page.mainFrame()) {
        // Find the TabSession for this page and clear its per-tab state
        for (const session of tabSessions.values()) {
          if (session.page === page) {
            session.onMainFrameNavigated();
            break;
          }
        }
      }
    });

    // ─── Dialog auto-handling (prevents browser lockup) ─────
    page.on('dialog', async (dialog) => {
      const entry: DialogEntry = {
        timestamp: Date.now(),
        type: dialog.type(),
        message: dialog.message(),
        defaultValue: dialog.defaultValue() || undefined,
        action: this.dialogAutoAccept ? 'accepted' : 'dismissed',
        response: this.dialogAutoAccept ? (this.dialogPromptText ?? undefined) : undefined,
      };
      addDialogEntry(entry);

      try {
        if (this.dialogAutoAccept) {
          await dialog.accept(this.dialogPromptText ?? undefined);
        } else {
          await dialog.dismiss();
        }
      } catch {
        // Dialog may have been dismissed by navigation
      }
    });

    page.on('console', (msg) => {
      addConsoleEntry({
        timestamp: Date.now(),
        level: msg.type(),
        text: msg.text(),
      });
    });

    page.on('request', (req) => {
      addNetworkEntry({
        timestamp: Date.now(),
        method: req.method(),
        url: req.url(),
      });
    });

    page.on('response', (res) => {
      // Find matching request entry and update it (backward scan)
      const url = res.url();
      const status = res.status();
      for (let i = networkBuffer.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
        const entry = networkBuffer.get(i);
        if (entry && entry.url === url && !entry.status) {
          networkBuffer.set(i, { ...entry, status, duration: Date.now() - entry.timestamp });
          break;
        }
      }
    });

    // Capture response sizes via requestfinished — but DO NOT call
    // response.body() here. Pre-fix, this listener materialized every
    // response body across CDP just to read .length: multi-GB/hour of
    // Buffer churn on long-lived headed Chromium with media-heavy
    // pages, the primary Bun-side accelerant on the gbrowser-OOM
    // investigation. req.sizes() pulls from the Network.loadingFinished
    // event Chromium already emits — accurate for chunked transfer,
    // gzip-compressed responses, and streaming media, all the cases
    // where the previous Content-Length-header approach would have
    // missed the size.
    //
    // The "single context-level CDP listener" architecture (D10's
    // stretch goal — would reduce per-page listener count from N to 1
    // via Target.setAutoAttach) is deferred. TODOS.md tracks it.
    page.on('requestfinished', async (req) => {
      try {
        const sizes = await req.sizes().catch(() => null);
        if (!sizes) return;
        const url = req.url();
        const size = sizes.responseBodySize ?? 0;
        for (let i = networkBuffer.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
          const entry = networkBuffer.get(i);
          if (entry && entry.url === url && !entry.size) {
            networkBuffer.set(i, { ...entry, size });
            break;
          }
        }
      } catch {
        // Best-effort: requestfinished fires for aborted/cached requests too,
        // where sizes() is unavailable. Missing size is acceptable; an
        // unbounded throw would noise the console for every cache hit.
      }
    });
  }
}